The energy transition—the movement away from carbon-based energy and toward low- and zero-carbon energy—varies substantially among municipalities, states, and countries. Indeed, the use or production of carbon-intensive fuels is still increasing in some areas. While some regions are experiencing major employment and community-based transitions as coal mines and coal-fired power plants are phased out, others—such as those that rely primarily on imported fuels—face different challenges, such as energy security. This page provides case studies and vignettes from countries, U.S. states, and local governments around the world to paint a more complete picture of the global energy transition and its many place-based differences.  These vignettes focus primarily on efforts to support workers and stimulate new economic development in regions experiencing closures of fossil fuel mining or power plants.

SOCIAL IMPACT

United States

Colorado, U.S.A.

Routt County, Colorado

Much of Colorado’s economy depends on fossil fuel development, with the state ranking 8th in natural gas production in 2021.^[1]Colorado State Energy Profile, U.S. Energy Information Administration, https://www.eia.gov/state/print.php?sid=CO (Last Updated: May 18, 2023. In Routt County, coal power plants represented about 2% of the direct jobs in the county, totaling 330 direct jobs, and a much larger percentage of school funding.^[2]Jennifer Baka, Seth Blumsack, Caden Vitti, and Hannah Wiseman, , “The Local Social and Economic Context of Energy Transitions”, Center for Energy Law and Policy, 10 (Apr. 8, 2022), … Continue reading

The Colorado Just Transition Advisory Committee has drafted proposals on how to transition Colorado coal workers once plants close by 2030. One recommended program is ensuring that each coal worker “has equal access to adequate case management, planning and mentoring assistance to develop and implement an individual transition plan designed to help the worker achieve his or her financial, career and/or retirement goals while maintaining or achieving economic self-sufficiency.”^[3]Colorado Just Transition Advisory Committee, Draft Colorado Just Transition Plan, p.20, available at … Continue reading Another is to use federal Trade Adjustment Assistance dollars to provide job training and education benefits for renewable energy technology.^[4]Id. at 22 A third recommendation is to provide temporary income and benefit assistance for 3-5 years for workers who intend to remain in the workforce while they search for new employment.^[5]Id. at 24.

The Colorado Department of Labor and Employment’s final Just Transition Action Plan similarly identifies ways to support both workers and communities losing fossil fuel-based jobs and revenue.^[6]Colorado Dept. of Labor and Employment, Colorado Just Transition Action Plan 1 (2020),https://cdle.colorado.gov/sites/cdle/files/documents/Colorado%20Just%20Transition%20Action%20Plan.pdf Among other strategies, the plan aims to better coordinate infrastructure planning to support transitions; identify and support institutions at all levels, from the local to the state level, to “facilitate needed investments”; “[p]repare, for future consideration, a detailed state program to help displaced workers build skills, find good jobs or start businesses”; and “[e]ncourage the federal government to lead with a national strategy for energy transition workers.”^[7]Id. at 1-2.

Americas

Argentina

Hydropower projects and displaces

Hydropower, exemplified by the binational project Yacyretá, has faced criticism due to its negative environmental and social repercussions. ^[8]Lucrecia Wagner,et. al., Fundación Ambiente y Recursos Naturales, Socio-environmental aspects of the energy transition transition in Argentina, 18-19 (2019), available at … Continue reading Initiated in 1983, this project has displaced around 80 thousand families and sparked controversy for its inadequate compensation to indigenous communities and other landholders without property titles. ^[9]W. Brites, La mega-hidroeléctrica Yacyretá en el vórtice de las reconfiguraciones urbanas. El caso de las ciudades de Posadas, Argentina, y Encarnación, Paraguay. Revista de Estudios Urbanos y … Continue reading Apart from disrupting traditional ways of life and altering river conditions, projects like Yacyretá have fueled opposition to new hydropower initiatives in Argentina, as evidenced by resistance to projects like Corpus Christi and Garabí. ^[10]The project received a negative vote from 88.63% of the voters, representing 62.85% of the electoral roll. This outcome was governed by Law 3220, which established the popular consultation process … Continue reading In the province of Misiones, citizen opposition has been notable through plebiscites, despite the lack of compliance with the law requiring popular participation in decisions about dams. ^[11]Lucrecia Wagner,et. al., supra note 1, 19 These conflicts and challenges persist in more recent projects, such as the Condor Cliff-La Barrancosa Hydropower Complex in the southern part of the country, highlighting the need to comprehensively address the social and environmental impacts of hydropower. ^[12]Six Degrees, Argentine provinces clash over a new large-scale dam (2020), available at https://www.sixdegreesnews.org/archives/29567/argentine-provinces-clash-over-a-new-large-scale-dam (last visited … Continue reading

Renewable energy and local economy

The exploitation of renewable energy resources can have undesired environmental, social, and economic consequences, leading to rejection from affected communities. ^[13]Lucrecia Wagner,et. al., supra note 1, 20 Projects linked to renewable energy sources may also raise environmental concerns and social conflicts, as exemplified by the resistance of residents in northern Neuquén to the installation of a geothermal plant in Copahue, due to concerns about its impact on tourism and the ecosystem. ^[14]Id. The lack of consultation with indigenous communities, as seen in lithium mining in Salta and Jujuy, violates international agreements and poses risks both environmental, such as the affecting sensitive ecosystems, and socioeconomic, by concentrating power in large corporations. ^[15]Caren Camiscia, ,Los Derechos Humanos de los Pueblos Indígenas Estudio de caso: Conflicto en las Salinas Grandes y la Laguna de Guayatayoc entre el 2010 y el 2016, Bachelor Dissertation, Universidad … Continue reading Despite being presented as an ecological alternative, biofuels also face criticism for their impact on land available for food crops and the concentration of land and income. ^[16]L. Pinto, Conflictos Ambientales y apropiación de territorios rurales en Brasil y Argentina, un análisis a partir de los actores sociales involucrados: estudio comparativo de la acción … Continue reading These conflicts underline the need to carefully consider environmental, social, and economic aspects in the transformation of the energy sector towards more sustainable forms. ^[17]Lucrecia Wagner,et. al., supra note 1, 21

Chile

Dominican Republic

Addressing the gender gap

Currently, the Dominican Republic is placed 112th out of 189 countries in the Global Gender Inequality Index, primarily due to women’s limited political and economic participation. ^[28]Pierre Candelon, UNDP,  8 ways to tackle inequality while promoting a green economy in the Dominican Republic (2023), available at … Continue reading Despite economic growth, progress in human development indicators like education and maternal health have been sluggish, exacerbating gender disparities. ^[29]World Bank, Country Climate and Development Report: Dominican Republic, 1-2 (2023), available at … Continue reading Particularly concerning is the underrepresentation of women in key sectors like agriculture and energy, where men dominate green jobs, with 95.1 percent of energy sector employees being male. ^[30]Pierre Candelon, supra note 1 The 2018 Gender and Climate Change Action Plan aims to address these issues by implementing measures to ensure equitable responses to climate change, including addressing women’s vulnerabilities and resource access. ^[31]World Bank, supra note 2, 15

Lack of land use and urban planning consideration

In the Dominican Republic, despite significant progress in the development of solar and wind energy projects, critical challenges persist due to the absence of a comprehensive land-use planning law. ^[32]Lilian Tejeda, Dialogo Chino, Renewables ‘boom’ in the Dominican Republic, but some feel sidelined (2023), available at … Continue reading Predominantly established without thorough consideration for territorial planning, environmental impact, or socio-economic expansion, these projects have primarily relied on approvals from the Ministries of Environment and Natural Resources, Agriculture, and the CNE. ^[33]Id. Notably, the recent enactment of the Law on Territorial Planning, Land Use, and Human Settlements in 2022 signifies a crucial step towards addressing these issues, although its implementing regulations are still pending publication.^[34]Id. ^[35]Dominican Today, Government signs agreement to strengthen planning and management of the territory (2023), available at … Continue reading)

Peru

Copper as a “green” alternative for Energy Transition

The modern global economy heavily relies on copper, a vital resource essential for renewable energy technologies. ^[36]Ayla Noelani Tiefenbach, Heidelberg Center for Iberoamerican Studies, Copper as a “green” resource for the energy transition, HCIAS Working Papers on Ibero-America 2 (2023), available at … Continue reading With the anticipated surge in renewable energy adoption amid the green energy transition, the demand for copper is set to soar, particularly in Peru, the world’s second-largest exporter of copper. ^[37]Id. While this projected increase in demand is seen as an opportunity for economic advancement, it has sparked concern among social movements and critical academics who have long decried extraction for causing socio-ecological conflicts. ^[38]Id. at 3

As Peru’s prominence in the copper supply chain grows, pressure on its mining areas will intensify, exacerbating existing social, ecological, and economic challenges associated with mineral extraction. ^[39]Id. at 6 Despite the narrative of copper as a “green mineral,” it overlooks the adverse socio-ecological impacts endured by communities at the extractive frontier of the renewable energy supply chain. ^[40]Ayla Noelani Tiefenbach, supra note 1, 6 

Use of water for Energy Transition

In the Peruvian context of copper extraction for Energy Transition, contentious protests over water rights have led to the indefinite halting of mining operations. ^[41]Carla Selman et al., S&P Global, Chile and Peru’s copper for energy transition (2023), available … Continue reading To address these concerns, Congress passed the Water Users Organizations Law in January 2023, empowering civil society groups, particularly the Board of Water Users (Juntas de Usuarios del Agua), with increased authority over crucial water infrastructure, which could potentially limit mining companies’ access to water resources. ^[42]Julian Li, Philippi Prietocarrizosa, Ferrero DU & Uria, Modification to Law 30157: How does it impact the strengthening of Water User Organizations in the face of mining operations? (2023), … Continue reading  Nevertheless, the government is at odds with this legislation and is expected to seek amendments to exclude non-agricultural users, including mining operations, from oversight by the Juntas de Usuarios del Agua. ^[43]Id.

Uruguay

Privatization of the grid

Uruguay’s energy transition has sparked significant criticism from trade unions and NGOs primarily due to its perceived privatization of the electricity sector, with over 50 percent of electricity generation now controlled by private companies, a stark shift from the previous dominance of the major public company UTE. ^[44]Maximiliano Proaño, Energy Transition, What’s next for the energy transition in Uruguay? (2018), available at https://energytransition.org/2018/11/whats-next-for-the-energy-transition-in-uruguay/ … Continue reading The President of the union for UTE workers argues that privatization has led to inefficiencies and high costs, with companies enjoying tax exemptions and lucrative contracts at the expense of the state and consumers. ^[45]Id. The transition to renewables, primarily through privately owned wind farms replacing public fossil fuel facilities, intensifies worries about the sector’s increasing privatization.^[46]World Resources Institute, Uruguay: Leveraging Partnerships to Create Green Jobs and Ensure a Just Transition (2021), available at … Continue reading Also, the tariff-setting process, influenced by macroeconomic factors to address fiscal deficits, further exacerbates fairness concerns, with lower-income sectors subsidizing higher-income ones in contrast to equitable principles. ^[47]Bruno Fornillo, Energy transition in Uruguay: market dominance or public-social power?, Revista Ambiente & Sociedade 24, 9 (2021), available at … Continue reading Urgent efforts to address challenges such as over-generation and enhancing human capital development are crucial for Uruguay’s journey towards a sustainable and equitable energy future. ^[48]Maximiliano Proaño, supra note 1

Increasing green jobs

In Uruguay, the transition from fossil fuel-based electricity generation to renewable sources has been remarkable, with a peak in fossil fuel generation and subsequent closures of plants between 2012 and 2016. ^[49]World Resources Institute, supra note 2 Negotiations with energy worker unions facilitated a smooth transition, ensuring no negative impact on workers, primarily through early retirement schemes. ^[50]Id. By 2019, renewable sources accounted for 98% of electricity generation, with wind power experiencing exponential growth. ^[51]International Trade Administration, Uruguay-Country Commercial Guide (2024), available at https://www.trade.gov/country-commercial-guides/uruguay-renewable-energy-equipment (last visited Feb. 12, … Continue reading The development of renewable energy not only created over 8,400 green jobs but also led to workforce training adaptations to meet sector demands. ^[52]Mariela Quiñones Montoro, OIT, Green jobs for sustainable sustainable development: The Uruguayan case, xi (2016),  available at … Continue reading Uruguay’s commitment to a just transition was evidenced by its selection as a pilot country for the ILO’s Green Initiative, aiming to create employment opportunities while ensuring social welfare and environmental protection. ^[53]World Resources Institute, supra note 2 Despite successes, challenges emerged, such as labor disputes following the closure of foreign-owned fossil fuel plants, highlighting the need for continued dialogue and proactive government intervention to safeguard workers’ rights and maintain social stability. ^[54]Id.

Europe

European Union

The European Union, composed of 27 member states, has historically led the global energy transition through robust support for clean technologies and a determined decarbonization agenda. ^[55]Tomasso Cavino, et. al., McKinsey Sustainability, Five key action areas to put Europe’s energy transition on a more orderly path (2023), available at … Continue reading The concept of just transition, originating from the US labor movement in the 1970s, emphasizes the need for support systems for workers affected by environmental protection policies. ^[56]Elena Verdolini, et. al., Resources for the Future, The European Union Policy Toolbox to Support Just Transition (2024), available at … Continue reading In the EU, cohesion policy, enshrined in the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union, aims to reduce disparities among member states and regions for integrated economic growth. ^[57]Id. European initiatives like the Employment and Social Innovation (EaSI) program and the European Regional Development Fund (ERDF) support social innovation, workforce development, and economic transition, while the Cohesion Fund promotes sustainable development in economically disadvantaged regions. ^[58]Id. These policies align with the European Green Deal’s goal of achieving climate neutrality by 2050 and ensuring a just transition for all citizens, emphasizing stakeholder engagement and local action. ^[59]Id.

In early 2022, the European Commission unveiled the REPowerEU plan, signaling a swift reduction in reliance on Russian fossil fuels and a commitment to advancing the green transition amid ongoing crises. ^[60]Tomasso Cavino, et. al., supra note 1 Despite varying challenges across member states, such as heavy industry dependence in Belgium, the Netherlands, and Luxembourg and coal-based power generation in Poland, unified action can facilitate achieving the region’s climate objectives. ^[61]Id. To mitigate permitting delays and land availability issues hindering the energy transition, stakeholders have to implement social-awareness campaigns and incentives to enhance public acceptance of renewable energy projects.^[62]Id. Encouraging local ownership of renewable-energy sources among citizens and businesses has shown promise in fostering public support for such initiatives. ^[63]Id.

Austria

Political decisions over social needs

The  city of Güssing serves as a prominent case study illustrating the transformative power of renewable energy deployment on regional energy systems and economies. ^[64]Nadejda Komendantova, et. al., Of transitions and models: Community engagement, democracy, and empowerment in the Austrian energy transition, Energy Research & Social Science 39, 141-151, 141 … Continue reading Initially considered underdeveloped, Güssing successfully transitioned to self-sufficiency in energy production and stimulated local employment and economic growth through renewable energy sector development. ^[65]Joanneum Research – Life: Centre for Climate, Energy & Society, “Model Güssing”: a vision of energy self-sufficiency, 3 (2015) , available at … Continue reading However, its top-down governance approach, reliant on subsidies and limited public involvement, raised questions about the depth of societal engagement in the transition. ^[66]Nadejda Komendantova, et. al., supra note 1, 142 The subsequent withdrawal of subsidies highlighted the importance of engaging inhabitants in decision-making processes to ensure long-term sustainability. ^[67]Id. The need for a holistic approach, integrating socio-economic, technological, and human factors, is emphasized, with further research necessary to adapt institutional structures and foster community empowerment in energy transitions. ^[68]Id. Decision-making processes in similar regions predominantly involve expert-driven approaches, underscoring the ongoing challenge of meaningful public engagement in shaping energy transitions. ^[69]Id. at 149

Local partnership and entrepreneurship

The municipality of Baden encountered regulatory hurdles in implementing a crowdfunded solar PV project for local buildings due to lacking a banking license, despite initial plans for residents to invest in individual panels. ^[70]Jenan Irshaid, et. al., Challenges to local innovation and implementation of low-carbon energy-transition measures: A tale of two Austrian regions, Energy Policy, 156, 8 (2021), available … Continue reading However, leveraging the manager’s ties to regional stakeholders, particularly the local bank, Baden devised a workaround by establishing a crowdfunding program through savings accounts. ^[71]Id.)) This innovative approach capitalized on the semi-autonomy of local banks for small-scale projects and the collaborative efforts of trusted social entrepreneurs, enabling the project to proceed … Continue reading

Bulgaria

Lost of mining and energy jobs

In September 2023, the Bulgarian government’s approval of plans for the green transition of coal regions, essential for securing 1.2 billion euros from the European Commission, sparked protests from miners and energy workers concerned about job losses, despite assurances from Prime Minister Nikolay Denkov that coal power plants would not close before 2038. ^[72]Radio Free Europe/ Radio Liberty, Protesting Bulgarian Energy Workers Refuse Meeting With PM On Green Transition Plan (2023), available at … Continue reading Facing pressure to meet deadlines and avoid further EU funding loss, the government committed to compensations for workers and emphasized the need for economic viability in the energy sector as it navigates the transition towards renewable energy sources. ^[73]Id. Miners, energy workers, and trade unions, despite media coverage primarily highlighting roadblocks and political promises, signed an agreement on October 3, 2023,  with the government in the National Assembly, initiating the start of more detailed negotiations. ^[74]Georgi Staykov, Green European Journal, Source of Division: Bulgaria’s Contested Green Transition (2023), … Continue reading As early as June 2022 the International Monetary Fund mentioned: “The regions would face a disproportionately large economic and social impact locally if coal mines and [coal-fired thermal power plants] close”. ^[75]Hajime Takizawa & Iglika Vassileva, International Monetary Fund, Bulgaria Selected Issue, IMF Country Report No. 22/191, 18 (2019), available at … Continue reading It is worth noting that The European Commission has approved Bulgaria’s Territorial Just Transition Plans, granting €1.2 billion from the Just Transition Fund to facilitate a smooth transition away from coal, reduce CO2 emissions, create new jobs, and bolster economic activities in regions such as Stara Zagora, Kyustendil, and Pernik, thereby aiding Bulgaria in meeting its 2030 climate and energy goals and achieving a climate-neutral economy by 2050. ^[76]European Commission website, EU supports just climate transition in Bulgaria with a budget of €1.2 billion, Press Release (2023), available at … Continue reading 

Energy costs for households

Mitigating energy poverty alongside higher carbon taxes is crucial, especially in Bulgaria where energy affordability remains a significant challenge despite regulated prices. ^[77]Hajime Takizawa & Iglika Vassileva, supra note 4, 18 Authorities aim to assess the extent of energy poverty in the country, recognizing the potential exacerbation of affordability issues with additional carbon taxes, necessitating measures such as targeted tariff structures and fiscal allocation to alleviate the impact on vulnerable households. ^[78]Id.   Models suggest that implementing such reforms is feasible and may even result in lower-income households benefiting from various financial instruments, thereby supporting the objectives of the European Green Deal. ^[79]Members of the Climate Coalition Bulgaria, Reform Is Possible: Bulgaria Can and Must Transform Its Energy Sector, 2 (2022), available at … Continue reading

Croatia

Croatia’s National Energy Strategy 2009-2020 outlined three primary goals: enhancing energy supply security, fostering a competitive energy system, and promoting sustainable development in the energy sector. ^[80]International Energy Agency, Country Profile: Croatia (2023), available at https://www.iea.org/countries/croatia (last visited Nov. 27, 2023)  These objectives hold significant importance for Croatia due to its heavy reliance on energy imports, making it susceptible to fluctuations in energy prices. ^[81]Id. Croatia’s Low-Carbon Development Strategy, released in 2021, outlines strategies for reducing emissions from 1990 levels across three scenarios: maintaining existing practices, and gradually  transitioning gradually. ^[82]Bloomberg NEF, Climatescope Croatia (2022), available at https://www.global-climatescope.org/markets/hr/ (last visited Nov. 27, 2023)

EU member states collectively presented a shared Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), delineating the bloc’s strategy to support the objectives of the Paris Agreement. ^[83]Id.  Initially pledging to decrease emissions by a minimum of 40% by 2030 compared to 1990 levels, the EU elevated its commitment in the revised NDC submitted in December 2020, aiming for at least a 55% reduction by 2030.^[84]Id.

Programs

National Energy and Climate Plan 2021-2030

In pursuit of its objectives, Croatia established a 2030 National Energy and Climate Plan, envisioning a 36.4% contribution from renewable energy sources by 2030, substantial investments in various energy sectors such as hydropower, wind farms, solar photovoltaic plants, and hydrogen energy, and active support for electric battery production, along with the renovation and expansion of electricity networks. ^[85]European Investment Bank, Powering Croatia (2023), available at https://www.eib.org/en/stories/energy-croatia-greener-supply-zagreb (last visited Nov. 27, 2023)

Environmental Protection and Energy Efficiency Fund (EPEEF) 

The EPEEF serves as the focal hub for gathering and allocating supplementary financial resources for initiatives in environmental and nature protection, energy efficiency, and the utilization of renewable energy sources, while also overseeing the database for these projects and programs. ^[86]The Environmental Protection and Energy Efficiency Fund (EPEEF), Activities of the Fund (2023), available at https://www.fzoeu.hr/en/activities-of-the-fund/1325 (last visited Nov. 27, 2023)

Slovenia

Transforming coal-related regions

In Savinjsko-Šaleška (SAŠA), the closure of coal mining in Velenje and the Šoštanj thermal power plant by 2033 will be facilitated by the Just Transition Fund (JTF), which aims to spur economic diversification and sustainability in the region. ^[87]European Commission website, EU Cohesion Policy: More than €258 million for a just climate transition in Slovenia (2022), available at … Continue reading Investments will prioritize research and development for innovative industrial processes and business capacity building, while transitioning the district heating system to cleaner energy sources like solar and heat pumps. ^[88]Id. Moreover, the JTF will repurpose coal-related infrastructure for renewable energy production, offer career guidance and training for 2,400 coal workers, and support the emergence of new sectors in Zasavje through SME development and talent retention initiatives. ^[89]European Commission, EU Cohesion Policy: More than €258 million for a just climate transition in Slovenia, Press Release (2022) https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/ip_22_7744 … Continue reading Decarbonization efforts will concentrate on renewable energy production and energy efficiency measures, with a flagship initiative being the establishment of a ‘Centre for Demonstration and Training in Zero Carbon Technologies’ to propel SAŠA and Zasavje towards a modern, sustainable, and green-oriented economy. ^[90]Ministry of Cohesion and Regional Development, Republic of Slovenia website, EU funding for the Centre for Demonstration and Training in Zero Carbon Technologies (2023), available at … Continue reading

Lack of interregional cooperation

The European Union has designated the Zasavska and SAŠA regions in Slovenia for inclusion in the Just Transition Mechanism (JTM). ^[91]Matevž Šilc, InterregEurope, Establishing the Council of Mayors of the SAŠA & Zasavje coal-intensive regions in the start of 2022 (2022), available at … Continue reading Recognizing the importance of coordinated action, mayors from municipalities within these regions have formed the Council of Mayors of the SAŠA and Zasavje coal-intensive regions. ^[92]Vladimir Spasić, Balkan Green Energy News, Slovenia’s mayors set council to secure just transition for coal phaseout (2021), available at … Continue reading This council aims to oversee the transition process and advocate for proper procedures, emphasizing the need for state support to ensure a just and equitable transition away from coal. ^[93]Id. However, challenges arise from the lack of interregional cooperation, compounded by the diverse composition of municipalities within these regions, some of which have limited resources and infrequent collaboration. ^[94]Matevž Šilc, supra note 5 To address these issues, the council focuses on developing regional plans, establishing effective transition management systems, securing financial resources, improving infrastructure, and enhancing various aspects of the local economy and social infrastructure, including the rehabilitation of degraded areas. ^[95]Obcina Hrastnik website, Ustanovljen Svet županov premogovnih regij SAŠA in Zasavje (2022), available at … Continue reading

Spain

Cheap electricity for neighbors

The increase in solar and wind energy projects in Spain has generated a movement of rejection in various communities due to land occupation and the proliferation of developments, under the slogan “Renewables yes, but not like this.” ^[96]Daniel Lopez Marijuán, Contexto y Acción, El debate sobre la transición energética en los movimientos sociales: discrepancias y coincidencias (2022), available at … Continue reading This movement, although romantically perceived by some as the resistance of rural communities against profit-seeking companies, is actually the result of a complex intersection of causes, perceptions, and ideologies. ^[97]Id.

Increasing social acceptance of renewable energy projects in local communities can be significantly enhanced if residents feel direct benefits in their electricity bills. ^[98]Pedro Fresco, Observatorio Transición Justa, Conflictos Sociales por el Desarrollo de Energías Renovables en el territorio. Causas y Propuestas de Mejora, Colección Policy Briefs, 24 (2023), … Continue reading In some cases, companies offer discounts or even free electricity to residents near renewable energy parks. ^[99]Id. For example, recently a company has agreed to subsidize 100% of the electricity bill for residents of 40 Aragonese municipalities where it will install solar and wind plants. ^[100]Pilar Sánchez Molina, PV Magazine, Forestalia ofrecerá electricidad gratis a más de 40 municipios donde desarrolla proyectos renovables (2023), available at … Continue reading Additionally, municipalities can also implement similar policies using the revenues generated by these parks. ^[101]Pedro Fresco, supra note 1, 25 For instance, the municipality of Muras, in Lugo, has created a fund to assist residents and small businesses with electricity payments, using revenues from the wind energy levy. ^[102]Javier H. Rodríguez, el Diario, Así consigue la factura de la luz más barata de España el pequeño municipio gallego de Muras (2021), available at … Continue reading Another effective strategy is to promote shared self-consumption or local energy communities, which can benefit all residents. ^[103]Pedro Fresco, supra note 1, 25 These initiatives not only improve social acceptance but can also lower electricity prices for residents, offsetting the impact of the unified electricity pricing system in Spain. ^[104]Id. Although changing this system is difficult, offering local benefits based on renewable energy can create incentives both regionally and locally, without contradicting current regulations. ^[105]Id.

Local financing and conflict resolution support offices

The development of renewable energies is predominantly located in small municipalities due to their economic appeal for communities with limited budgets, although this can pose management difficulties for local governments. ^[106]Pedro Fresco, supra note 1, 26 Regional governments and autonomous communities could establish specialized teams to advise these municipalities on the optimal management of income from these projects, avoiding unproductive investments. ^[107]Id. Another option would be the creation of conflict mediation offices to resolve disputes between renewable energy developers and local communities, with independent mediators facilitating consensus and averting distrust among the involved parties, although their opinion would not necessarily be binding to avoid unnecessary bureaucracy. ^[108]Id.

The Just Transition Strategy 

The Just Transition Strategy comprises initiatives aimed at fostering employment opportunities within the context of the energy transition. These efforts are underpinned by a comprehensive framework that includes vocational training, proactive labor policies, support measures for vulnerable populations, and economic stimulus plans targeting regions most affected by the shift towards sustainable energy sources.^[109]Ministry of Energy Transition and Demographic Challenge of Spain, Spain, towards a just energy transition, Just Transition Institute Executive Report,(2022), 4-5, available at … Continue reading

Spain’s LongTerm Strategy (LTS) 

The LTS outlines a strategy for progressing toward climate neutrality by 2050, aiming to reduce greenhouse gas emissions by at least 90% compared to 1990 levels. ^[110]Ministry of Energy Transition and Demographic Challenge of Spain, Long Tem Decarbonization Strategy 2050 (2020), 5-6, available at  https://unfccc.int/sites/default/files/resource/LTS1_Spain_0.pdf … Continue reading) The plan includes specific targets for 2030 and 2040 and aims to capitalize on the advantages of transitioning to cleaner energy sources while enhancing economic transformation and competitiveness. ^[111]Id.

Asia Pacific

Australia

Hazelwood Coal Power Plant

In November of 2016, the French multinational utility company ENGIE announced the impending closure of the Hazelwood coal-fired power plant in Victoria’s Latrobe Valley.^[112]World Resources Institute, Australia’s Latrobe Valley: Coordinating Private Companies to Redeploy Power Plant Workers (2021), available at … Continue reading) Shortly after the announcement, the Victorian government established the Latrobe Valley Authority (LVA), which was tasked with “‘leading the transition and transformation of the Latrobe Valley by working for and with workers, business and the community to transition to a strong future through response, recovery and long-term strategic work.’”^[113]John Wiseman et al., After the Hazelwood coal fired power station closure: Latrobe Valley regional transition policies and outcomes 2017-2020, Australian National University, Crawford School of … Continue reading The federal government and Victoria provided financial support for job retraining, direct worker assistance such as counseling and job-seeking assistance, and economic redevelopment and diversification.^[114]See supra note 1 Additionally, Regional Development Victoria created a Supply Chain Transition Program to help companies create business transition plans and the Latrobe Valley Economic Facilitation Fund to enhance capital investment in the valley, with an estimated 968 jobs created by 2019 as a result of this investment.^[115]Latrobe Valley Authority, Latrobe Valley Community Report: Transitioning to a strong future November 2016-November 2019, 4 (2019), available at … Continue reading The Latrobe Valley Authority’s Community and Facility Fund provided further support for local infrastructure and programs, such as upgrading and refurbishing streets and sports complexes using local contractors.^[116] Id. at 5.

Despite numerous transition support programs, up until the plant’s closure, there was much uncertainty about how to design programs and funding to ensure economic support to the plant’s 850 workers and the surrounding communities. One of the programs that the LVA enacted was the Worker Transfer Partnership Scheme, designed to reemploy workers at other Latrobe Valley businesses, including nearby coal mines. But the hiring process for many of these businesses was delayed.^[117]Calla Wahlquist, Hazelwood workers hang up their hats as power station closes, The Guardian, Hazelwood workers hang up their hats as power station closes (2017), … Continue reading The Worker Transition Service was meant to be a one stop shop for the former Hazelwood workers to get information, training and support for new jobs. ^[118]Id. By some estimates, by mid-2019, fewer than half of the workers had full-time work.^[119]Jarrod Whittaker, Latrobe Valley workers face legacy of unstable work two years after Hazelwood closure, ABC News (2019), … Continue reading Other accounts report that by 2019, approximately 74% of former Hazelwood workers were no longer looking for work due to retirement or re-employment elsewhere.^[120]Id. at 3.

China

China’s Reallocation of Fossil Fuel Workers

The transition away from coal-mining jobs in China is largely due to economic forces rather than concerns about climate. To address overcapacity in some industries, China chose to scale back on coal mining and steel production at a quick rate. This shift forced the Chinese government to attempt to reallocate over 500,000 workers in State Owned Enterprises beginning in 2017.^[121]Reuters, China to reallocate 500,000 coal and steel workers in 2017: labor minister (2017), … Continue reading) Much of this reallocation has occurred in the Shanxi province, a province historically dependent on—and proud of—coal.^[122]Richard Bridle et al., International Institute for Sustainable Development, At the Crossroads: Balancing the financial and social costs of coal transition in China, 4 (2017), … Continue reading China has promised to spend 100 billion Yuan (~14.3 billion USD) to assist with inevitable layoffs that a scaleback will entail.^[123]Reuters, China sets up 100 billion yuan fund to cover layoffs in coal, steel sectors (2016), https://www.reuters.com/article/us-china-economy-employment-fund-idINKCN0W20JT (last visited March 9, 2024) After announcing this scaleback, the Chinese Ministry of Human Resources and Social Security proposed four ways to relocate laid off coal workers: internal reemployment within companies, reemployment at other companies, retirement, and reemployment in public positions.^[124]The Institute of Strategic Studies of Petroleum, Natural Gas and Biofuels, Energy transition, national strategies, and oil companies: what are the impacts for workers? 50 (2020), … Continue reading The government has stated that it has successfully relocated over 1.2 million coal workers, but the government has not yet fully publicized the data supporting this statement.^[125]Ministry of Human Resources and Social Security of the People’s Republic of China, How to View China’s Employment Situation [如何看待我国就业形势], referencing article originally … Continue reading)

Economic Restructuring in China’s Mining Cities

Through policies at the national, provincial, and municipal level, China has attempted to avoid the typical boom-and-bust cycle many resource-based cities experience, focusing on coal mining towns. These policies include extending the existing industry, substituting it, and developing a circular economy (where waste is inputted into another process).^[126]Sylvia He et. al., Shrinking cities and resource-based economy: The economic restructuring in China’s mining cities, 60 Cities 75, 5 (2017), … Continue reading Prime examples of this economic restructuring are Daqing (大庆), historically a gas-drilling city, and Pingxiang (萍乡), a coal-mining city.^[127]Id. at 6-12.

Daqing, also known as the “petroleum city,” underwent an economic restructuring in the 1990s, attempting to extend a singular oil-mining economy to a petrochemical and manufacturing-based economy. ^[128]Id. at 7.  However, this expansion is stalled by the Central Government’s control of resources, the large number of state-owned enterprises leading to low private profits, and the low quotas for an extended petrochemical industry.^[129]Id. at 8-9. Pingxiang, in turn, historically heavily relied on coal, but after the sharp decline in production in the 1990s, coal-mining jobs rapidly disappeared.^[130]Id. at 9. Instead of extending the industrial chain of coal mining, Pingxiang has attempted to develop a substitute industry including ceramics, cements, fireworks/firecrackers, and tourism.^[131]Id. at 10. This substitution led to a GDP of 91.2 RMB, a growth of 8.9%, in 2015, higher than the national average.^[132]Id.

Japan

Aging population, difficult geography and lack of supply diversity

In recent years, Japan has faced a series of devastating natural disasters, including the Fukushima nuclear meltdown in 2011, prompting significant shifts in energy policy. ^[133]David Fickling, How Japan became the land the energy transition forgot, The Japan Times (2023), available … Continue reading)  The nation swiftly closed its nuclear sector and compensated with increased coal usage, leading to a rise in fossil fuel dependency while zero-carbon power decreased to 28%. ^[134]Id. This shift is compounded by broader socioeconomic challenges stemming from an aging population and declining rural economy. ^[135]International Renewable Energy Agency,Socio-economic Footprint of the Energy Transition: Japan(2022), available at … Continue reading) Japan’s geographical constraints, such as limited usable land due to mountainous terrain, pose further obstacles to renewable energy development. ^[136]David Fickling, supra note 1  These challenges are exacerbated by a fragmented power market and a lack of investment and expertise in renewable projects.  ^[137]Rachel Herring, A Just Transition: Clean Energy in Rural Japan, National Geographic (2024), available at https://fieldnotes.nationalgeographic.org/expedition/japanenergy (Last visited May 15, 2024) Despite efforts to reform the electricity market, Japan continues to grapple with regional disparities and insufficient competition. ^[138]David Fickling, supra note 1  Prime Minister Kishida’s decision to restart nine nuclear reactors in 2022 underscores the ongoing debate over energy security versus safety concerns and the need to accelerate renewable energy adoption. ^[139]Naoko Kutty, See how Japan is preparing for the global energy crisis, World Economic Forum (2022), available at … Continue reading) However, entrenched interests in the energy sector, particularly nuclear and fossil fuels, have hindered progress towards a more sustainable energy future. ^[140]Nithin Coca, How Japan’s renewable underestimates are impacting Asia’s energy transition, The Japan Times (2023), available at … Continue reading) Consequently, Japan remains a battleground where renewables struggle to compete with traditional fossil fuels. ^[141]Id.

Philippines

Critical minerals in indigenous lands

The Philippines is actively exploring critical mineral deposits like nickel and lithium to support the production of electric vehicles and renewable energy storage. ^[142]Gaea Katreena Cabico, et. al., Women, laborers, indigenous peoples at the heart of Southeast Asia’s energy transition, PhilStar Global (2023), available at … Continue reading)  As the world’s second-largest producer of nickel ore, it hopes to become a hub for minerals processing and renewable energy systems. ^[143]Id.

A partnership with the United States to develop the critical mineral sector has been formalized with substantial funding. ^[144]Id. However, this drive for clean energy is straining indigenous communities, with nearly half of mining projects located in ancestral domains, leading to potential displacement, loss of livelihoods, and environmental degradation. ^[145]Id.

Maya Quirino, the advocacy coordinator for the Legal Rights and Natural Resources Center (LRC), emphasized that the pursuit of energy transition minerals should not serve as a blanket justification for mining activities. ^[146]Gaea Katreena Cabico, et. al., Philippines faces challenges in balancing green energy needs with community rights, PhilStar Global (2023), available at … Continue reading) Quirino highlighted the presence of five such minerals in the Philippines, cautioning against unchecked extraction even in the context of renewable energy development. ^[147]Id.

LRC’s research revealed that a significant portion of mineral deposits and mining projects in the Philippines are situated on ancestral lands. ^[148]Id. Others have identified systemic challenges in the management of the transition minerals sector, including weak enforcement of social and environmental safeguards and limited participation of local communities and governments in mining governance. ^[149]Id. Furthermore, the absence of effective government platforms hampers constructive dialogue and involvement in the green technology supply chain and clean energy transition. ^[150]Gaea Katreena Cabico, et. al., supra note 5

POLICY LANDSCAPE

United States

New Mexico, U.S.A.

San Juan County, New Mexico

Historically, coal has not been a fixture of New Mexico’s economy. But for counties such as San Juan, coal mining is a part of the culture and slowed the transition away from coal after New Mexico enacted its Energy Transition Act.^[151]Jonathan Thompson, In San Juan Basin, cultural, economic bonds slow fossil fuel transition, Energy New Network (June 30, 2022), … Continue reading San Juan was home to two active mining plants including the San Juan Generating Station which employed 100 workers until the plant shut down its final operating unit in September 2022.^[152]Hannah Grover, As the last coal burned, San Juan Generating Station employees expressed a mixture of emotions, The NM Political Report (Sept. 29, 2022), … Continue reading All of the employees were laid off.^[153]Susan Bryan, US shift away from coal hits home in San Juan County, Farmington Daily Times (Oct. 2, 2022), … Continue reading Local nonprofit organizations have led the charge in aiding San Juan County after the plant’s closure. For example, the San Juan Citizens Alliance has proposed multiple solutions including siting renewable energy in-county, providing funding to retrain plant workers, and full transparency as the closure affects a large population of Navajo people.^[154]See San Juan Citizens Alliance, https://www.sanjuancitizens.org/energy-transition (last visited Nov. 3, 2022).

Wyoming, U.S.A.

Sheridan, Wyoming

Sheridan, Wyoming has been a coal mining city for over 130 years.^[155]Jennifer Baka, et. al., The Local Social and Economic Context of Energy Transitions (2022), 9, available at … Continue reading Sheridan has two active mines with one in bankruptcy, and these mines are against a backdrop of steadily declining coal jobs across the state–a 28.7% decline from 2019-2021.^[156]Id. As jobs and tax revenue from the mines decrease, Sheridan has attempted to expand its economy outside of coal.^[157]Id. This includes expanding its existing professional services and manufacturing firms.^[158]Id. In that sense, WY Ranch, an industry hub based in Sheridan, is specifically looking to expand opportunities in the aerospace, nanotechnology, and composites industries by connecting potential industrial partners with “right-fit projects and people,” promoting Wyoming companies and talent, diversifying businesses and entire sectors, and encouraging, and encouraging sustainable business development with “[f]orward-thinking growth and management.”^[159]WY RANCH website, About the Ranch, available at https://www.wyranch.org/the-ranch (last visited Dec. 08, 2023) As of April 2020, at least one advanced materials business had relocated to Sheridan, and in 2021, Falcon Car Corporation announced that it would build an electric vehicle production facility in Sheridan.^[160]Staff Reports, Falcon Car Corporation moving to Sheridan, the Sheridan Press (2021), … Continue reading

Americas

Argentina

RenovAr, renewable energy auction initiative

Argentina aspires to achieve net-zero emissions by 2050, yet a comprehensive strategy for realizing this objective remains undisclosed. The country’s Nationally Determined Contributions (NDC) progress includes the submission of its second NDC to the UNFCCC in December 2020, outlining its alignment with the Paris Agreement.^[161]Treasury department, Argentinian government, Update of the net emissions goal to 2030 of the Argentina’s Second NDC (2021), available at … Continue reading A revised edition of the NDC in November 2021 solidified Argentina’s commitment to capping net emissions at 349 million tons of carbon dioxide equivalent (MtCO2e) by 2030. ^[162]Id. While no formal plan for phasing out fossil fuel-powered plants is in place, Argentina did enact a renewable energy law in 2015, conducting renewable energy auctions since then to achieve a targeted 20% share of renewables in the national electricity consumption by 2025.^[163]Act 27191 Legal Regulations on National Promotion for the Use of Sources of Renewable Energy, Congress Argentina (2015) (enacted) … Continue reading

Within the framework of its renewable energy auction initiative, RenovAr, Argentina has upheld 20-year Power Purchase Agreements (PPAs) denominated in US dollars across four auctions. Notably, there are no constraints on the duration of bilateral PPAs between corporations and clean energy producers. Highlighting progress, Argentina accomplished a significant feat in 2020, connecting 1.4 gigawatts (GW) of wind and solar capacity to the grid, adding to the country’s total installed electricity generation capacity, which has surpassed 40,000 MW.^[164]International Energy Agency, Argentina Renewable Energy Auctions – RenovAr Program (Round 1) https://www.iea.org/policies/6130-argentina-renewable-energy-auctions-renovar-program-round-1 (last … Continue reading)

Brazil

The movement away from carbon-based energy and toward low- and zero-carbon energy in Brazil has a fast-paced, policy-based approach where research and development are prioritized.^[165]World Bank, The World Bank in Brazil: Overview (2023) , available https://www.worldbank.org/en/country/brazil/overview (last visited Nov. 27, 2023)

Brazil committed to cut greenhouse gases (GHG) emissions to 53% by 2030, compared to 2005. ^[166]Jake Spring, Brazil to revise climate targets to cut emissions 53% by 2030 -sources (2023), Thomson Reuters, available … Continue reading)   Similarly, the goal of achieving net-zero carbon emissions by 2050 is aligned with a prior tentative target date of 2060 for this net-zero emission objective. ^[167]Bloomberg NEF, Climatescope: Brazil (2022), availble at https://www.global-climatescope.org/markets/br/. Haga clic o pulse si confía en este vínculo." href="https://nam10.safelinks.protection.outlook.com/?url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.global-climatescope.org%2Fmarkets%2Fbr%2F&data=05%7C01%7Cjjo5503%40psu.edu%7C0b15fa010f72413554f308dbe9ef2b91%7C7cf48d453ddb4389a9c1c115526eb52e%7C0%7C0%7C638360985659060617%7CUnknown%7CTWFpbGZsb3d8eyJWIjoiMC4wLjAwMDAiLCJQIjoiV2luMzIiLCJBTiI6Ik1haWwiLCJXVCI6Mn0%3D%7C3000%7C%7C%7C&sdata=RIJVTq6Tc7ohr5DZcIrbF%2B4s%2FzcJql6sYPW7eFYjje4%3D&reserved=0" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer" data-auth="NotApplicable" data-linkindex="7" data-loopstyle="linkonly">https://www.global-climatescope.org/markets/br/ (last visited Nov. 27, 2023)  Current efforts in Brazil are focused on Energy Efficiency Programs, partnerships and Collaborations with international organizations, governments, and private sectors to share knowledge, best practices, and resources for achieving carbon neutrality and sustainability. ^[168]International Energy Agency, E4 Country Profile: Energy Efficiency in Brazil (2021), available at https://www.iea.org/articles/e4-country-profile-energy-efficiency-in-brazil (last visited Nov. … Continue reading)

Brazil predominantly secures its clean energy capacity through auctions featuring standardized Power Purchase Agreements (PPAs). ^[169]Bloomberg NEF, Climatescope: Brazil (2022), availble at https://www.global-climatescope.org/markets/br/. Haga clic o pulse si confía en este vínculo." href="https://nam10.safelinks.protection.outlook.com/?url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.global-climatescope.org%2Fmarkets%2Fbr%2F&data=05%7C01%7Cjjo5503%40psu.edu%7C0b15fa010f72413554f308dbe9ef2b91%7C7cf48d453ddb4389a9c1c115526eb52e%7C0%7C0%7C638360985659060617%7CUnknown%7CTWFpbGZsb3d8eyJWIjoiMC4wLjAwMDAiLCJQIjoiV2luMzIiLCJBTiI6Ik1haWwiLCJXVCI6Mn0%3D%7C3000%7C%7C%7C&sdata=RIJVTq6Tc7ohr5DZcIrbF%2B4s%2FzcJql6sYPW7eFYjje4%3D&reserved=0" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer" data-auth="NotApplicable" data-linkindex="9" data-loopstyle="linkonly">https://www.global-climatescope.org/markets/br/ (last visited Nov. 27, 2023) Brazil conducts frequent capacity auctions to maintain grid reliability, with well-defined rules and processes for project interconnection, along with regularly updated and published grid expansion plans. ^[170]Id. The definition of net metering regulation and its reform initiatives have incorporated significant input from both the industry and the public. ^[171]Id.

Chile

Colombia

The movement away from carbon-based energy and toward low- and zero-carbon energy in Colombia is driven by a community-based approach based on both education and support from the Renewable Energy Integration Program.^[180]Climate Investment Fund, “Renewable Energy Integration, Shift to Zero Carbon”, https://www.cif.org/topics/renewable-energy-integration

The board of the Climate Investment Funds (CIF) approved Colombia’s Investment Plan to implement its Renewable Energy Integration Program (REI Program) with a package of up to US$70 million^[181]Maria A, Planas, Juan Cárdenas., Colombia launches the Renewable Energy Integration Program of the Climate Investment Funds in Latin America, Inter-American Development Bank (Mar. 2, 2023), … Continue reading. The Ministry of Mines and Energy prepared the plan for the Colombian government, and it will be supported by the Inter-American Development Bank (IDB), or in Spanish, Banco Interamericano de Desarrollo (BID).^[182]See Id.

Much of Colombia’s current efforts are directed to support people that did not have access to fossil fuel energy in the past, prioritizing providing them with renewable energy to stimulate new economic development.^[183]See Id.  Colombia has also developed encouraging technological educational programs that can prepare potential workers for this new way of making energy.^[184]See Id.

Dominican Republic

The Dominican Republic currently lacks a net-zero goal and a comprehensive long-term strategy for low-carbon efforts. In its Nationally Determined Contributions (NDC), the country initially committed to a 25% reduction in greenhouse gas emissions by 2030 compared to 2010 levels, with a later revision aiming for a 27% reduction by 2030. ^[185]United Nations Development Programme, Climate Promise: Dominican Republic, https://climatepromise.undp.org/what-we-do/where-we-work/dominican-republic#:~:text=In%20its%20updated%20NDC%2C%20the,only … Continue reading) 

The current administration has advocated for a gradual transition towards diversifying the energy portfolio with cleaner technologies. They have set a target for renewables to make up at least 25% of power generation by 2030, up from an estimated 15% at present..^[186]International Trade Administration, Dominican Republic- Country Commercial Guide, available at https://www.trade.gov/country-commercial-guides/dominican-republic-renewable-energy (Last visited March … Continue reading) To achieve this objective, the administration intends to increase the fiscal credit for investments in renewable energy systems back to 75%, as initially outlined in renewable energy incentives law 57-07. ^[187]Id.; National Energy Commission, Renewable Energy Incentives Law 57-07, On incentives for the development of renewable energy sources and their special regimes, 28 (2012), available at … Continue readingThis adjustment comes in response to a previous administration’s decision that lowered the credit to 40%. ^[188] International Trade Administration, supra note 2) The Dominican Republic incentivizes renewable energy through tax breaks and priority dispatch, exempting machinery and equipment from import tax and value-added tax (VAT).^[189]PWC, Worldwide Tax Summaries: Dominican Republic, https://taxsummaries.pwc.com/dominican-republic/corporate/tax-credits-and-incentives (last visited Aug.07, 2023)

El Salvador

El Salvador has not established a net-zero emissions target. Nonetheless, in May 2022, the country collaborated with the European Union under the El Salvador-EUROCLIMA Action Plan with the aim of crafting a strategy for a sustainable, low-emission future.^[190]Climate Scope, El Salvaor, Bloomberg NEF,https://www.global-climatescope.org/markets/sv/

The EUROCLIMA El Salvador Action Plan will have an investment of 1.1 million euros^[191]Euroclima, “El Salvador and the European Union present their climate change action plan”, … Continue reading, and it will be the guide that will develop 4 major national actions in the climate field during the time period of 2022-2023^[192]See Id.:

The first one is a formulation of a Long Term Resilient and Low Emission Development Strategy; the second one consists of support to formulate a Nationally Appropriate Mitigation Action (NAMA); the third one refers to the strengthening of the regulatory framework for the implementation of the Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC) and finally, the Development of regionalized climate scenarios.^[193]Press and information team of the EU Delegation in El Salvador,“The European Union and El Salvador present their action plan against climate change”, European Union External Action, … Continue reading)

Guatemala

In July 2022, Guatemala unveiled a long-term low-carbon strategy but has yet to establish a net-zero emissions target.^[194]Bloomberg NEF, Climatescope Guatemala (2022), https://www.global-climatescope.org/markets/gt/ (last visited Nov. 20, 2023 In the same year, the country updated its Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC) as part of its commitment to the Paris Agreement, aiming to reduce greenhouse gas emissions by 11.2% by 2030 compared to 2005 levels. ^[195]United Nations Development Programme, Climate promise – Guatemala (2023), https://climatepromise.undp.org/what-we-do/where-we-work/guatemala (last visited Nov. 13, 2023)

With the potential for additional financial and technical support from international sources, both public and private, Guatemala suggests that it could achieve a more substantial 22.6% reduction in emissions by 2030.^[196]Bloomberg NEF, supra note 1 The sectors targeted for mitigation efforts include Land Use, Land Use Change, and Forestry (LULUCF), agriculture, energy, and waste.^[197]Id.

Currently, the Law of Incentives for Advancing Renewable Energy Projects streamlines the import and acquisition of energy generation equipment employing renewable technologies and offers tax exemptions to new projects.^[198]International trade Organization, Guatemala Renewable energy (2022) https://www.trade.gov/market-intelligence/guatemala-renewable-energy (last visited Nov. 13, 2023) Nevertheless, despite the ample supply of renewable energy, there are rural regions without electricity access or those who still prefer using sources like firewood, resulting in a low energy utilization rate.^[199]Id.

Panama

The movement away from carbon-based energy and toward low- and zero-carbon energy in Panamá has a communication strategic transition approach based on the N.°MIPRE-2023-0021773 Resolution. ^[200]Condensed consolidated interim financial statements, Enel Colombia S.A. E.S.P. and Subsidiaries, p.40, (Jun.30,2023) https://www.enel.com.co/content/dam/enel … Continue reading

Panama submitted a non-binding plan to help achieve the goals set out in the 2015 Paris Agreement called Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC) that aims to lower carbon dioxide emissions from its energy sector by at least 11.5% between 2022 and 2030, and by at least 24% between 2022 and 2050. ^[201]Climate Scope, Panama,BloombergNEF,https://www.global-climatescope.org/markets/pa/

Current mitigation efforts include reforestation plans, Strategic Guidelines of the 2020-2030 Energy Transition Agenda and the reinforcement of its 2016 NDC target for 15% of energy generation to come from renewables by 2030.^[202]Id.

Peru

While Peru joined the global methane pledge in 2010, it lacks a net-zero emissions goal and a comprehensive carbon strategy. In its updated Nationally Determined Contributions (NDC) submitted to the UNFCCC in December 2020, Peru targets a 30% emissions reduction against a business-as-usual scenario by 2030. With international support, it aims for a 40% reduction. ^[203]CAT Climate Target Update Tracker, Climate Action Tracker, last updated Dec.18, 2020, available at https://climateactiontracker.org/climate-target-update-tracker/peru/ The goal covers all sectors and includes absolute targets of 208.8 million tons of carbon dioxide equivalent by 2030 in the business-as-usual case and 179 million metric tons by 2030 in the event of international support.^[204]Peruvian Government, Nationally Determined Contributions Updated Report 2021-2030 (2020), available at … Continue reading

The Legislative Decree 1002 on investment promotion for generation of electricity using renewable energy of Peru established the promotion of renewable energies as a national priority with a specific objective to meet: in the first five years the Renewable Energy Resources (hereinafter RERs) had to generate at least 5% of the electricity consumed in Peru.^[205]International Energy Agency Website, Last updated: 29 March 2017, … Continue reading In accordance with article 2.2 of the regulation, after this period, the Ministry of Energy and Mines (MEM) “will establish a (new) objective percentage of the participation – in national electricity consumption – of the electricity generated from the RER.”^[206]Id. Concerning the on-grid RER auctions, a total of 64 projects were granted in four auctions that took place in 2009, 2011, 2013, and 2015.^[207]Humberto Campodónico & César Carrera, Energy transition and renewable energies: Challenges for Peru, 171 Energy Policy 113261, 113264(2022), available at … Continue reading The cumulative power generated by these RER plants amounts to 1,274 MW, and the collective investment in these projects is reported to be US$ 1.957 billion, as per the Supervisory Agency for Investment in Energy and Mining (In Spanish, OSINERGMIN -Organismo Supervisor de la Inversión en Energía y Minería)  data.^[208]Id. Notably, small hydroelectric plants secured 50% of the awards, making them the most awarded, followed by wind energy at 30%.^[209]Id. Solar energy claimed the third position with a 16% share, while biomass projects occupied the last place with 3%.^[210]Id.

Uruguay

Uruguay is dedicated to attaining carbon neutrality by 2050 and has put forth a comprehensive strategy for this purpose in December 2021. In their Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC) submitted in November 2017, Uruguay has set a target to lower greenhouse gas emissions intensity by 24% by 2025.^[211]Uruguay Government, Nationally Determined Contributions (2017), 3-7, available at https://www.ccacoalition.org/sites/default/files/resources//2017_First-NDC_Uruguay%28ES%29.pdf With regard to fossil fuels, Uruguay is gradually phasing out more expensive and environmentally unfriendly oil-fired power plants, leaving only two operational.^[212]Uruguay Government, Nationally Determined Contributions (2022), 3, available at https://unfccc.int/sites/default/files/NDC/2022-12/Uruguay%20Segunda%20CDN.pdf Despite ongoing discussions about retiring these plants, there isn’t a specific policy in place yet to achieve this objective.^[213]Id.

Uruguay’s installed capacity reached nearly 5,000 MW by 2022. ^[214]Bloomberg NEF, Climate Scope 2023 Uruguay, https://www.global-climatescope.org/markets/uy/  (last visited March 10, 2024 The National Energy Plan exceeded targets by achieving 857 MW of wind and 425 MW of biomass by 2015.^[215]International Renewable Energy Agency, Renewable Energy Policy Brief, Uruguay (2015), available at … Continue reading) However, clean energy progress slowed post-2015. The low-income tariff, offering a 35% discount for up to 230 kilowatt-hours of monthly consumption, saw the subsidy discontinued for new users in 2022 as part of a revised subsidy strategy aimed at lower-socioeconomic status households.^[216]Bloomberg NEF, supra note 4 The new Hydrogen Roadmap, initiated in 2022, aims to achieve 2 to 4 GW of renewables by 2030.^[217]Industry, Energy & Mines Department, Uruguay Department, Green Hydrogen Roadmap in Uruguay (2022), 38, available at … Continue reading The state-owned utility UTE, though integrating independent producers through auctions, experienced a demand decline of 3.5% from 2016-2017.^[218]See Supra note 49

Europe

European Union

Europe’s energy policy is shaped by energy security and EU climate targets from the ‘Fit For 55’ package. These include reducing greenhouse gas emissions by at least 55% by 2030 and reaching net zero emissions by 2050.^[219]European Council, European Union, European Green Deal- Fit for 55 information (2023), available at https://www.consilium.europa.eu/en/policies/green-deal/fit-for-55-the-eu-plan-for-a-green-transition/ The current targets for 2030 aim to achieve a 42.5% share of renewable energies in final energy consumption, along with an 11.7% reduction in final energy consumption across the European Union by that year, and 15% electricity system interconnection.^[220]European Parliament, European Union, Fact Sheets on the European Union: Energy policy (2023), available at … Continue reading

New proposed 2030 EU targets, agreed in March 2023, aim for a 42.5% renewable energy share and an 11.7% reduction in primary and final energy consumption compared to 2020 projections, equivalent to 40.5% and 38% less than 2007 projections.^[221]European Parliament, European Union, Fact Sheets on the European Union: Energy Efficiency (2023), available at … Continue reading The existing European energy policy, established in 2015 with the Energy Union strategy, seeks to provide secure, sustainable, competitive, and affordable energy. In addition, EU Member States must create 10-year integrated national energy and climate plans, submit progress reports every two years, and develop long-term strategies that align with energy targets and the Paris Agreement.^[222]European Commision, European Union, National long-term strategies (2020), available at … Continue reading This strategy propels Europe towards a greener, more resilient energy future. Several treaties and regulations lay out the framework for the EU’s energy policy; those documents are summarized briefly in the tables below.

Austria

In December 2019, Austria unveiled a long-term climate strategy committed to achieving carbon neutrality by 2050, prioritizing solutions other than nuclear power. Their strategy emphasizes the future viability of carbon capture and storage technologies. Austria, as a member of the European Union, aligns with the EU’s Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC) to fulfill the goals of the Paris Agreement. The EU, in December 2020, submitted an updated NDC to the United Nations, and Austria increased its carbon reduction target to 55% compared to 1990 levels, up from the previous 40%, as part of the EU’s Green Deal initiative.^[229]European Commision on behalf the European Union and its members,European Union, Intended Nationally Determined Contribution of the European Union Towards The Climate Agreement of Paris 2015. (2020), … Continue reading

Austria made significant strides in phasing out coal in 2020 but faced a reversal in 2022 due to a gas supply shortage from Russia. The nation also set ambitious targets for phasing out fossil-fuel heating, starting with bans on oil heaters in new constructions and plans to prohibit gas heaters in new buildings by 2023. Additionally, Austria aims to eliminate oil and gas-fired boilers in all buildings by 2035 and completely phase out oil-fired heating systems by 2050, with an interim milestone in 2030 when oil and gas heating installations in new buildings will be prohibited.^[230]International Energy Agency,  Austria 2020 Energy Policy Review (2020), available at … Continue reading

Austria is on a promising path to exceed its renewable energy targets for 2030, aiming for renewables to cover 34% of total energy needs and 100% of electricity demand. They also plan to install one million rooftop solar photovoltaic systems by 2030 through their “#mission2030” initiatives. Support for renewables includes feed-in tariffs and upfront grants, especially for small hydro and solar projects. However, the government has introduced a new energy law transitioning to a premium-based auction system, effective in the latter half of 2022, to further promote renewables.^[231]Federal Ministry for Sustainability and Tourism, Federal Ministry for Transport, Innovation and Technology, Austrian Climate and Energy Strategy # Mission 2030 (2018), available at … Continue reading

Programs

The government programme for 2020-24

The measures outlined in the Mission2030 and the National Energy and Climate Plan focus on enhancing Austria’s renewable energy sector. ^[232]Republic of Austria, Out of responsibility for Austria. Government program 2020-2024, 78 (2020), available at https://www.dievolkspartei.at/Download/Regierungsprogramm_2020.pdf This includes setting a clear target to achieve 100% electricity from renewable sources by 2030 and promoting sustainable generation across various applications such as electricity, heating, and mobility. ^[233]Id. Additionally, efforts will be made to bolster energy security by expanding existing renewable energy infrastructure and reducing reliance on imports. ^[234]Id.The government aims to improve energy efficiency, explore cross-cutting technologies, and develop hybrid energy networks, while also promoting the expansion of “green gas” production to meet specific targets by 2030 through various support programs and incentives. ^[235]Id., at 79Furthermore, there’s a plan to mobilize federal-owned areas for renewable energy projects, either for direct government use or third-party utilization through leasing agreements. ^[236]Republic of Austria, supra note 1, 79

The Flagship Region Energy 

The Flagship Region Energy initiative, introduced in 2018, centers on optimizing the interplay between energy generation, consumption, system management, and storage. ^[237]Klima- und Energiefonds,  Flagship region Energy (2018), available at https://www.vorzeigeregion-energie.at/wp-content/uploads/Folder-Vorzeigeregion-EN-screen-RZ.pdf It offers financial support for the real-time testing of comprehensive energy solutions. ^[238]Id. The primary objective of Flagship Regions Energy is to advance projects closer to the market, primarily through the establishment of innovation partnerships and the implementation of green financing initiatives in designated model regions. ^[239]Id. Austria has identified three regions for this purpose, each representing distinct thematic focuses for innovation.^[240]Id.

In the first region, situated in the eastern part of Austria with the highest population density and a significant portion of variable renewable energy installations, green energy laboratories have been established. ^[241]Klima- und Energiefonds, supra note 6 These laboratories serve as testbeds for evaluating smart grids and sector integration. ^[242]Id. A prominent research area within this region explores the optimal utilization of digitalization to deliver customer-centric energy solutions. ^[243]Id.

Legislative initiatives

National Energy and Climate Plan (ENCP)

The European Union mandates each of its member states to create a ten-year integrated document known as the National Energy and Climate Plan (ENCP). ^[244]Federal Ministry for Sustainability and Tourism, Integrated National Energy and Climate Plan for Austria, available at … Continue reading This plan is crucial for the EU to meet its overall greenhouse gas emissions targets. ^[245]Id. In the case of Austria, the ENCP focuses on enhancing the transportation sector, particularly in urban areas and along transit routes, which still require improvements. ^[246]Id. The decarbonization efforts encompass various objectives and measures, including:

• Reducing greenhouse gas emissions by 36% compared to 2005 levels.
• Strengthening and expanding public transportation.
• Implementing mobility management strategies for businesses, municipalities, regions, and tourism.
• Promoting electric mobility in private transportation.
• Greening the standard fuel consumption tax and engine-related insurance tax.
• Providing input tax deductions for electric bicycles and motorcycles.^[247]Id. at 9-10

Decarbonization initiatives extend to other sectors such as buildings, agriculture, forestry, waste management, fluorinated gases, and spatial planning. ^[248]Federal Ministry for Sustainability and Tourism, supra note 1, 9-17 In the energy sector, the primary goal is to increase the share of renewable energy in the gross final energy consumption to 46-50% and source 100% of electricity consumption from renewables, while maintaining a national energy balance. ^[249]Id. at 13 Taxation, including tax advantages and exemptions, remains the primary instrument to achieve these objectives. ^[250]Id. Additionally, the plan aims to address aspects related to energy efficiency, the internal energy market, research and innovation, and monitoring and evaluation. ^[251]Id. at 17

The Just Transition Strategy 

The Just Transition Strategy comprises initiatives aimed at fostering employment opportunities within the context of the energy transition. These efforts are underpinned by a comprehensive framework that includes vocational training, proactive labor policies, support measures for vulnerable populations, and economic stimulus plans targeting regions most affected by the shift towards sustainable energy sources.^[252]FEDERAL MINISTRY FOR TRANSPORT, INNOVATION AND TECHNOLOGY,Just Transition Aktionsplan Aus- und Weiterbildung (2023), available at … Continue reading

Austria’s LongTerm Strategy (LTS) 

In accordance with Regulation 2018/1999 on the Governance of the Energy Union and Climate Action, as well as Decision 1/CP.21 of the Paris Agreement, Austria has formulated its long-term plan for reducing greenhouse gas emissions while adhering to a strict non-nuclear energy policy. This plan is designed to ensure Austria achieves climate neutrality no later than 2050. It encompasses all key sectors, including energy, industry, transportation, construction, agriculture, and forestry. Furthermore, it emphasizes the potential for reducing emissions through changes in human lifestyles and consumption patterns, as well as the role of digitalization in contributing to this goal. Additionally, Austria’s government program for the years 2020-2024 commits the country to attaining climate neutrality by 2040, necessitating updates to the long-term strategy.^[253]FEDERAL MINISTRY REPUBLIC OF AUSTRIA, SUSTAINABILITY AND TOURISM, Long-Term Strategy 2050 – Austria (2019), available at https://unfccc.int/sites/default/files/resource/LTS1_Austria.pdf

Bulgaria

Bulgaria’s robust and diversified power sector boasts universal grid access and strong cross-border connections with neighboring countries. However, the energy and climate change sector faces significant challenges due to geopolitical, economic, and regulatory pressures, impacting its role as a driving force in the Bulgarian economy^[254]International Trade Organization Website, Bulgaria – Country Commercial Guide, Energy,Last published date: Sep.11, 2022, https://www.trade.gov/country-commercial-guides/bulgaria-energy. As an EU member, Bulgaria aligns with the EU’s ambitious climate goals, including the aim to achieve net-zero emissions by 2050.^[255]See Id.

Within the EU, Bulgaria collaborates on the Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC) submitted to the UNFCCC^[256]European Commission on behalf the European Union and its members, Intended Nationally Determined Contribution of the European Union Towards The Climate Agreement of Paris 2015. (2020), available at … Continue reading. The EU’s initial NDC targeted a 40% reduction in emissions by 2030, relative to 1990 levels. ^[257]See Id. p.5In December 2020, the EU reinforced its commitment by setting a more ambitious goal of reducing emissions by 55% by 2030.^[258]European Climate Foundation, EU leaders set more ambitious emissions reductions target for 2030 (Dec.1st, 2021), available at … Continue reading Notably, Bulgaria has transitioned from feed-in tariff contracts to feed-in premium contracts for most renewable energy producers.^[259]U.S. Department of State, 2023 Investment Climate Statements: Bulgaria (2023), available at https://www.state.gov/reports/2023-investment-climate-statements/bulgaria/. These premium contracts, influenced by market prices, replaced traditional feed-in tariffs, with some exceptions for smaller renewable electricity producers and specific installations that continue to benefit from feed-in tariffs.^[260]See Id.

Programs

Under EU Directive 2009/28/EC, Bulgaria is obligated to create a 10-year National Energy and Climate Plan (NECP) in line with the EU’s transition goals. ^[261]The European Parliament and the Council of The European Union, Regulation (EU) 2018/1999 (2018), 5, available at https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX:32018R1999&from=EN In their NECP, Bulgaria aims to increase renewable energy’s share in their final energy consumption  to 27% by 2030.^[262]Ministry of Energy of the Republic of Bulgaria, Integrated Energy and Climate Plan of the Republic of Bulgaria 2021-2030. (2019), 58,  available at … Continue reading

Under the Directive 2012/27/EU , Bulgaria established ambitious renewable energy targets spanning heating, electricity, and transportation sectors for 2020.^[263]Ministry of Energy of the Republic of Bulgaria, National Energy Efficiency Action 2014-2020 (2014), 7, 49-57, available at https://energy.ec.europa.eu/system/files/2014-12/NEEAPBulgaria_en_0.pdf Their primary objective is to reach a 16% share of energy from renewable sources in total energy consumption.^[264]Angel Nikolaev et al., Development and assessment of renewable energy policy scenarios by 2030 for Bulgaria, Renewable Energy (2017), Pages 792-802, available at … Continue reading. To achieve this, Bulgaria implemented various strategies, including feed-in tariffs, mandatory grid connections for renewable energy plants, long-term power purchase agreements, and guarantees of origin.^[265]Enerdata, Bulgaria – Institutions and Energy Policy – Renewables – FiTs (feed-in-tariffs), available at … Continue reading) They also enforced compulsory biofuel blending, provided incentives like zero excise duty for pure biofuels, and initiated short and long-term programs to foster renewable energy growth.^[266]Angel Nikolaev et al., supra note 4, at 794

Legislative initiatives

Energy from Renewable Sources Act

In 2011, Bulgaria introduced the Energy from Renewable Sources Act, designed to regulate the production and utilization of renewable energy to meet the country’s targets for renewable energy use in its final gross energy consumption.^[267]Republic of Bulgaria, Energy from Renewable Sources Act (2011), available at … Continue reading This act played a pivotal role in shaping the renewable energy landscape, setting the stage for sustainable energy development.^[268]See Id.

Energy Act
Subsequently, in 2013, the Energy Act was implemented to govern various aspects of the energy sector, encompassing grid connections, electricity generation, transmission, pricing, and access for renewable energy sources. ^[269]Republic of Bulgaria, Energy Act (2013), available at https://www.minfin.bg/upload/39583/Energy_Act.pdf This legislation included provisions to support electricity from renewable sources, with the costs of feed-in tariff schemes being shouldered by electricity consumers.^[270]Id. Notably, the act empowered the grid operator to decline the connection of a renewable energy facility if they could demonstrate insufficient grid capacity or a threat to the security of energy supply.^[271]Id.
As part of ongoing energy sector reforms, Bulgaria’s Energy Commission proposed a new bill in 2020 to amend and supplement the Energy Act.^[272]CMS Law Now, Bulgaria’s Ministry of Energy proposes establishment of energy communities (2023), available at … Continue reading) The proposed bill aims to liberalize Bulgaria’s energy market by suggesting significant changes to the existing Act, including eliminating the National Energy Company’s role as the Public Supplier to promote competition and enhancing the consumer market. ^[273]Id. Additionally, the bill proposes the creation of ‘energy communities’ as capable parties in electricity transactions, empowering household users to maintain their rights while benefiting from participating in the energy transition and collaborating with commercial entities, thus addressing regulatory hurdles and issues related to vulnerable customers and ‘energy poverty’ discrimination. ^[274]Id. As of the date of this writing (Fall 2023), the bill has not yet been enacted into law.^[275]Gor Todorovic, Energy bill to liberalize wholesale power market introduce energy communities, Balkan Green Energy News (2023), available at … Continue reading

Croatia

Croatia’s National Energy Strategy 2009-2020 outlined three primary goals: enhancing energy supply security, fostering a competitive energy system, and promoting sustainable development in the energy sector. ^[276]International Energy Agency, Country Profile: Croatia (2023), available at https://www.iea.org/countries/croatia (last visited Nov. 27, 2023)  These objectives hold significant importance for Croatia due to its heavy reliance on energy imports, making it susceptible to fluctuations in energy prices. ^[277]Id. Croatia’s Low-Carbon Development Strategy, released in 2021, outlines strategies for reducing emissions from 1990 levels across three scenarios: maintaining existing practices, and gradually  transitioning gradually. ^[278]Bloomberg NEF, Climatescope Croatia (2022), available at https://www.global-climatescope.org/markets/hr/ (last visited Nov. 27, 2023)

EU member states collectively presented a shared Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), delineating the bloc’s strategy to support the objectives of the Paris Agreement. ^[279]Id.  Initially pledging to decrease emissions by a minimum of 40% by 2030 compared to 1990 levels, the EU elevated its commitment in the revised NDC submitted in December 2020, aiming for at least a 55% reduction by 2030.^[280]Id.

Programs

National Energy and Climate Plan 2021-2030

In pursuit of its objectives, Croatia established a 2030 National Energy and Climate Plan, envisioning a 36.4% contribution from renewable energy sources by 2030, substantial investments in various energy sectors such as hydropower, wind farms, solar photovoltaic plants, and hydrogen energy, and active support for electric battery production, along with the renovation and expansion of electricity networks. ^[281]European Investment Bank, Powering Croatia (2023), available at https://www.eib.org/en/stories/energy-croatia-greener-supply-zagreb (last visited Nov. 27, 2023)

Environmental Protection and Energy Efficiency Fund (EPEEF) 

The EPEEF serves as the focal hub for gathering and allocating supplementary financial resources for initiatives in environmental and nature protection, energy efficiency, and the utilization of renewable energy sources, while also overseeing the database for these projects and programs. ^[282]The Environmental Protection and Energy Efficiency Fund (EPEEF), Activities of the Fund (2023), available at https://www.fzoeu.hr/en/activities-of-the-fund/1325 (last visited Nov. 27, 2023)

Denmark

Denmark aims to achieve net-zero emissions by 2050, aligning with the European Union’s objective, and has set an interim target for 2030, aiming for a 70% reduction in greenhouse gas emissions compared to 1990 levels. ^[283]Bloomberg NEF, Climatescope Denmark (2022), available at https://www.global-climatescope.org/markets/dk/ (last visited Nov. 24, 2023) As a member of the European Union, Denmark is committed to the joint Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC) within the framework of the Paris Agreement, wherein its updated submission to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) in 2020 outlines a target to achieve a 55% reduction in emissions by the end of 2030 compared to 1990 levels.^[284]Id.

The nation is dedicated to reducing greenhouse gas emissions by 70% from 1990 levels by 2030 and ensuring that renewables account for at least half of its overall energy consumption by the same year.^[285]International Energy Agency, Denmark (2023), available at https://www.iea.org/countries/denmark (last visited Nov. 24, 2023) Denmark’s vision extends to achieving net-zero emissions by 2050, aligning with international climate goals, and phasing out coal-fired power by 2030.^[286]Id. A noteworthy political agreement aspires to have renewables cover 100% of electricity and 55% of total consumption by 2030, with 90% of district heating derived from non-fossil sources.^[287]Id.

Further demonstrating its commitment to sustainability, Denmark is striving to eliminate the sale of petrol and diesel cars by 2030.^[288]Jonas Ekblom, Denmark calls for EU strategy to phase out diesel and petrol cars from 2030 (2019), Reuters, available at … Continue reading The country’s distinguished position, leveraging its consistent breezy climate, has successfully harnessed wind energy, currently surpassing other industrialized OECD countries by producing nearly double the per capita wind energy and making it a global leader in wind energy.^[289]Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Denmark, Green Thinking: Pioneers in clean energy, Denmark.dk, available at https://denmark.dk/innovation-and-design/clean-energy (last visited Nov. 24, 2023) Denmark’s strategic use of combined heat and power plants, paired with wind energy, offers substantial potential for efficiently combining heat and electricity systems.^[290]International Energy Agency, Energy Policies of IEA Countries: Denmark 2017 Review (2017), available at https://www.iea.org/countries/denmark (last visited Nov. 24, 2023)

Finland

The movement away from carbon-based energy and toward low and zero-carbon energy in Finland revolves around achieving complete carbon neutrality by 2035.^[291]International Energy Agency, Executive summary of Energy Policy Review Finland (2023), available at https://www.iea.org/reports/finland-2023/executive-summary (last visited Nov. 24, 2023) Accordingly in July 2022, Finland updated its Climate Change Act to legally commit to achieving that neutrality by reducing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions (excluding land use, land-use change, and forestry) by 60% by 2030, 80% by 2040, and 90-95% by 2050.^[292]Id.

The National Climate and Energy Strategy (NCES) serves as the pivotal document outlining how Finland intends to achieve the European Union’s (EU) 2030 energy and climate targets and attain carbon neutrality by 2035^[293]Id.. Finland has a low reliance on fossil fuels thanks to its nuclear reactors and significant domestic production of renewable energy, primarily from forestry biomass, hydro, and wind sources.^[294]International Energy Agency, Finland’s nuclear and renewable power strengths provide a solid foundation for reaching its ambitious climate targets (2023), available at … Continue reading) In 2021, fossil fuels accounted for just 36% of Finland’s total energy supply (TES). ^[295]Id.

Finland lacks domestic fossil fuel production, importing all crude oil, natural gas, and coal.^[296]Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), Fossil Fuel Support Country Note (2020), 1, available at … Continue reading However, the country’s high energy intensity and per capita energy consumption stem from its sizable heavy industry sector and the substantial heating demand driven by its cold climate.^[297]Id. Imported natural gas still exists withing Finland’s energy portfolio, but its consumption was halved due the cessation of Russian pipeline gas imports in May 2022. As a result, the share of renewable energy continued to grow, reaching 41.8 percent of total final energy consumption.^[298]International Trade Administration, Finland, country commercial guide (2023), available at https://www.trade.gov/country-commercial-guides/finland-energy (last visited Nov. 24, 2023). Moreover, there has been a declining trend in carbon removal from land use, land-use change, and forestry since 2010, with the land-use sector becoming a net source of GHG emissions for the first time in 2021. ^[299]Saila Nieminen, et. al., Finland’s Energy Transition: IEA’s Perspective on the 2023 Policy Review (2023), Young leaders in Energy Sustainability (YES-Europe), available at … Continue reading

France

The energy transition strategy in France is based on a set of policies, laws and measures aimed at reducing dependence on fossil fuels, promoting renewable energy, improving energy efficiency and reducing greenhouse gas emissions.^[300]International Energy Agency, France needs to invest more in energy efficiency, renewables and nuclear to put itself on track for net zero by 2050, IEA policy review says (2021), available at … Continue reading

However, currently France is falling short of its goals to increase the use of renewable energy sources in its energy mix.^[301]International Energy Agency, France 2021: Executive Summary (2021), available at https://www.iea.org/reports/france-2021/executive-summary Currently, only 19.3% of the country’s final energy consumption comes from renewables, which is well below the European target of 23% by 2020.^[302]France Nature Environmental, Renewable Energies Acceleration Act: what has been achieved? , available at https://fne.asso.fr/actualites/loi-d-acceleration-des-energies-renouvelables-quel-bilan (last … Continue reading) France is the only European Union member state that hasn’t met this objective. Consequently, it is in violation of European Union regulations, which could result in penalties of “nearly 500 million euros in 2022”, as stated by the Minister for Energy Transition.^[303]Id.

France’s Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC), aligned with the EU’s, initially sought a 40% emissions reduction by 2030 from 1990 levels, but in December 2020, the EU enhanced its target to a 55% reduction, echoing the ambitions of the Green Deal.^[304]European Commission on behalf the European Union And Its Members, European Union, Intended Nationally Determined Contribution of the European Union Towards The Climate Agreement of Paris … Continue reading Meanwhile, France had a commitment to cease coal usage by 2022, yet the confluence of nuclear maintenance and the European energy crisis led to the reactivation of the Saint-Avold coal-fired power station.^[305]Bloomberg NEF, Climatescope: France (2022), available at https://www.global-climatescope.org/markets/fr/

Germany

Federal-State-Regional-Local Transition Approaches

Germany has long been considered the leader of the just energy transition due to its program to discontinue coal (and nuclear) energy, Energiewende. Germany’s policies to address the impacts of this shift have included supporting its former coal miner workforce, addressing financial downturns in regional and local economies, and completing environmental remediation and sustainable redevelopment in former industrial and coal-centric communities, among others.^[306]Resources for the Future, German Just Transition: A Review of Public Policies to Assist German Coal Communities in Transition (Nov. 2021), https://media.rff.org/documents/21-13-Nov-22.pdf.

One of Germany’s major transition efforts involved the Ruhr area, which formerly produced most of Germany’s coal, hosting 140 of Germany’s 173 coal mines in 1957.^[307]Elke Dahlbeck et al., Analysis of the historical structural change in the German hard coal mining Ruhr area 30 (2021), … Continue reading The Ruhr transition had several phases. The first phase (1966 through 1974) involved an effort to preserve the coal industry by modernizing mining techniques and subsidizing infrastructure.^[308]Id. at 16. At the same time, however, the Ruhr development program of 1968 aimed to encourage the growth of new industries in the Ruhr area and to expand public infrastructure, services, and universities in the area. The federal government, the state, the European Community, and the German Federal Employment Agency contributed approximately 8.69 million euros to this effort.^[309]Id. at 56. Additionally, in 1970, the Ruhr development program expanded to become the North Rhine-Westphalia program (15.84 billion euros of financing), with further investments in modernizing coal mining and adding more universities to the region, including what is now Germany’s largest university.^[310]Id. One challenge associated with efforts to attract new industries to the Ruhr area, however, was that coal companies continued to own much of the land and refused to sell it; this undercut municipal and state efforts to support new industrial development.^[311]Id. at 57

Within the second phase of the Ruhr transition (1975-1986), the state of North Rhine-Westphalia initiated four transition and coal mine preservation measures: subsidizing hard coal mining technologies; supporting other energy technologies, including nuclear; expanding small- and medium-enterprise innovation; and subsidizing the steel industry.^[312]Id. at 58.  The Ruhr action plan (APR) of 1980 consolidated these programs, with the exception of steel, and aimed to infuse funding into the area that would link university research and knowledge with “local companies.” Funding also supported worker re-employment, education, the development of technology centers, and environmental protection, among other measures.^[313]Id. The State of North Rhine-Westphalia provided approximately 2.61 billion Euros, and the federal government contributed approximately 0.77 billion Euros to support the APR, which lasted for four years. Municipalities and “third parties” also contributed funding.^[314]Id.  Also during this phase, the Ruhr property fund, established in 1979 and administered by the state development company of North Rhine-Westphalia, focused on environmental remediation and site redevelopment. Through this fund, former coal mines that had not been transferred to the newly-formed Rural coal corporation (RAG, comprised of merged coal companies from the region) were designated for redevelopment for other industries.^[315]Id. at 53, 59.

The third phase of Ruhr transition (1987-1999) involved a recognition that different regions in the Ruhr required different transition solutions and that the entire area needed to move away from reliance on coal mining.^[316]Id. at 16, 28 This recognition largely arose from rounds of talks involving stakeholders, including former coalmine workers. The state parliament of North Rhine-Westphalia formed the coal and steel region future initiative (ZIM), which channeled federal, state, municipal, and European Community funds to regions for redevelopment and a more concerted transition away from coal mining.^[317]Id. at 60. Six regions of the Ruhr area held regional conferences in which “[m]unicipalities, businesses, academia, research and transfer institutes, trade unions and labour administrations” participated.^[318]Id.  The Future initiative for the regions of North Rhine-Westphalia (ZIN) further expanded this effort to the entire state of North Rhine-Westphalia, encompassing more than just the Ruhr area.^[319]Id. Through a “bottom-up” strategy led by  regional stakeholders, regions each established a development initiative through the approval of state-level departments, and these initiatives focused primarily on “technology transfer bodies,” which aimed to “transfer the technological expertise from research into practice” in order to support start-ups.^[320]Id. at 60-61.  Regional initiatives also focused on ecological restoration, “conversion of old industrial buildings,” the transformation of brownfields to new “industrial and service sites,” and housing redevelopment. ^[321]Id. at 63-64. 

Finally, the fourth phase of transition for the Ruhr area and North Rhine-Westphalia (from the year 2000 through the present day) more broadly involved industry sector-specific foci within each region, involving “clusters,” which are “geographical concentrations of [vertically] interdependent companies.”^[322]Id. at 65. Funding in this phase has focused on financing start-ups and infrastructure to support innovation, among other areas.^[323]Id. at 66. 14,000 new jobs have been created within this phase.^[324]Id. See also Arora and Schroeder for a helpful summary of the Ruhr area transition.^[325]Anmol Arora and Heike Schroeder, How to avoid unjust energy transitions: insights from the Ruhr region, 12 Energy, Sustainability, and Society (2022.).

At the federal level, beyond the efforts focused on North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany has also established the Commission on Growth, Structural Change and Employment, also known as the Coal Commission (“Kohlekommission”), whose mission is to develop strategies and tools to support a just transition away from coal.^[326]Commission on Growth, Structural Change and Employment [Kommission „Wachstum, Strukturwandel und Beschäftigung”], Final Report [Abschlussbericht] (January 2019), … Continue reading The German government subsequently enacted the Coal Phase-Out Act, which adopts many of the Commission’s recommendations concerning the coal phase-out.^[327]Act to Reduce and End Coal-Powered Energy and Amend Other Laws (Coal Phase-Out Act) [Gesetz zur Reduzierung und zur Beendigung der Kohleverstromung und zur Änderung weiterer Gesetze … Continue reading Included in this legislation is a 5-year compensation program for workers 58 years or older who lose their jobs due to a coal plant being decommissioned along with direct payments to make up for lost money from pension reductions due to early retirement.^[328]Germany: Law on Phasing-Out Coal-Powered Energy by 2038 Enters into Force, Lib. of Cong., Aug. 31, 2020.

Essen, the European Green Capital for 2017

In 2017, Essen, Germany, officially became the European Green Capital for 2017. The European Commission (“Commission”) presents this award to a city that is “at the forefront of environmentally friendly urban living.”^[329]Essen becomes the European Green Capital for 2017, European Comm’n (Jan. 20, 2017), https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/IP_17_85. Essen received this award “for its success in transitioning from a heavily polluting mining center to a clean and green economy.”^[330]Essen: A Beacon of City Climate Action, U.N. Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) (Jan. 11, 2017), https://unfccc.int/news/essen-a-beacon-of-city-climate-action. Essen sits in North Rhine-Westphalia, a historically high coal producing state, and Germany’s most populous state.

Among the factors that the independent judges found most appealing were Essen’s CO2 emissions reductions target of 40% by 2020, a target to create 20,000 jobs in the environmental sector by 2025, and a target to reduce car travel 29% by 2035.^[331]Essen becomes the European Green Capital for 2017, European Comm’n (Jan. 20, 2017), https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/IP_17_85. Some of the specific initiatives the judges noted were Essen’s creation of over 150 km of green space, which over 250,000 people can access within 500 meters, the installation of low-noise pollution asphalt roads, and the introduction of Low Emission Zones.^[332]European Comm’n, Expert Panel – Technical Assessment Synopsis Report: European Green Capital Award 2017 (Apr. 2015), … Continue reading The Commission hopes that cities such as Essen will act as a model for sustainable urban living moving forward.

Some of the specific physical markers of energy transition in Essen include creative reuse of former coal mine infrastructure, such as the Zollverein Coal Mine. The former cookery for the coal mine is now an ice rink in the winter.^[333]Chiara Robotti, European Investment Bank, A blueprint for turning a city green (Mar. 3, 2017), https://www.eib.org/en/stories/a-blueprint-for-turning-a-city-green#. The European Investment Bank funded portions of the transition, including approximately 30% of the cost of new underground sewers and greenspaces.^[334]Id.

Greece

Greece is a strong contributor to achieving the EU goal of net zero emissions by 2050, through its energy and climate policies.^[335]International Energy Agency, Greece must build on its successes in reducing fossil fuel dependence, IEA report says, … Continue reading These policies focus on ensuring energy security, enhancing economic competitiveness, and safeguarding vulnerable consumers.^[336]Id.

In 2022, Greece’s production of renewable energy, with wind, solar, and hydroelectric sources collectively contributed to nearly 50% of the nation’s electricity production. ^[337]Grece Hebdo, Climat: La Grèce à la COP 27 et L’initiative “Greco … Continue reading)This substantial reliance on renewable energy positions Greece as a leading country in this domain.^[338]Id. It boasts an impressive installation of more than 10 gigawatts of solar and wind power capacity, ranking it among the top ten nations globally for wind and solar energy adoption.^[339]Id.

Greece’s National Energy and Climate Plan sets a target of achieving 28 gigawatts (GW) of renewable energy capacity by 2030.^[340]Harry Aposporis, Greece boosts 2030 renewable energy target by 9 GW, adds hydrogen (published Jan.18, 2023) … Continue reading Additionally, it aims to establish 8 GW of energy storage capacity. ^[341]Id.

Italy

Italy holds the third position in Europe for both consuming and generating power from renewable sources^[342]International Trade Administration, (Nov.26,2022) … Continue reading. Italy has been going strong in its search for transitioning from carbon energy to renewable sources.

In fact, the NECP (National Energy and Climate Plans) had updated the objectives that had been established in 2017 to more ambitious ones based on the progress Italy made since then.

For example, it achieved its 2020 target for renewables as a percentage of total energy consumption, surpassing the original goal by reaching 18.2% compared to the 17% target.^[343]See Id.

Searching to consolidate this progress, Italy wants to concentrate the use of the European Aid funds on the Energy sector.^[344]Olivier Tosseri, L’Italie veut concentrer les aides européennes sur le secteur de l’énergie, Les Echos, (Feb.7,2023) … Continue reading

Italy plans to continue its renewable energy initiatives while aiming to expand the role of green hydrogen.  It aims for 2% consumption of green hydrogen by 2030 and 20% by 2050. ^[345]French Ministry of Economy, Finance, and Industrial and Digital Sovereignty, Italy Climate & Energy (Apr.15,2021) … Continue reading

Norway

The movement away from carbon-based energy and toward low and zero-carbon energy in Norway started very early and, at this point, is one of the most advanced European countries in this movement. The country’s approach has been based on hydropower based-energy technologies and onshore and offshore wind resources.^[346]Chambers and Partners, Alternative Energy & Power 2023, https://practiceguides.chambers.com/practice-guides/alternative-energy-power-2023/norway/trends-and-developments (last visited Nov. 13, 2023)
However, the country is one of the seven largest oil and gas producers and exporters.^[347]International Energy Agency, Executive Summary (2022), https://www.iea.org/reports/norway-2022/executive-summary (last visited Nov. 13, 2023) In 2020, 87% of the country’s energy production was exported.^[348]Id. The country is considered a reliable producer and supplier of oil and gas, especially in satisfying European demand.^[349]Id.
Much of Norway’s current efforts are directed to offshore wind projects, with the help of Equinor, a Norwegian government company. Equinor is helping to implement offshore wind farms, one of which is Hywind Tampen, a wind farm located about 140 kilometers from shore that began producing power in the third quarter of 2022 and became fully operational as of August 2023.^[350]Equinor, The world’s largest floating offshore wind farm officially opened,  https://www.equinor.com/news/20230823-hywind-tampen-officially-opened (last visited Nov. 13, 2023) This project has a 88MW capacity.^[351]Id.

Portugal

The Ukrainian- Russian war was a catalyst for all the EU countries to switch to renewable energy and break loose from the energy dependency they have from the two countries. ^[352]Sergio Goncalves, Portugal to speed up switch to renewable power in wake of Ukraine war, Reuters (Apr. 1, … Continue reading

The transition has been pushed by a rise in the price of electricity and the inability of citizens to keep up with the high energy charges caused by the war.^[353]Marie Charrel, Portugal to speed up switch to renewable power in wake of Ukraine war, Le monde (published Nov. 22, 2022) … Continue reading

Portugal is investing in more renewable energy, mainly solar and wind. In an effort to achieve the goals of COP 27, 50% of the electricity this year has been produced by solar and wind energy.^[354]Euronews Green, Solar, €49 train tickets and home energy efficiency: Why Portugal is our Green Country of the Month, (published Jul.31,2023 … Continue reading

This improvement shows in their new adjusted 2030 plans. The government aims to reach its 2030 goals of 80% production of electricity from  renewable energy by 2026.^[355]Id

Romania

Romania stands out among European nations as one of the least reliant on Russian oil and gas, thanks to its robust energy production capabilities. In 2020, 17% of Romania’s energy imports were sourced from Russia, a figure that fell below the European Union’s average of 24 percent. ^[356]Ylenia Gostoli, Energy crisis accelerates Romania’s transition to renewables, TRT World, https://www.trtworld.com/magazine/energy-crisis-accelerates-romania-s-transition-to-renewables-59931 

Romania’s energy policy has a dual focus: ensuring energy security while upholding regional, European and global obligations. ^[357]Romanian Ministry of Foreign Affairs Website https://www.mae.ro/en/node/2160 (Last updated, Mar. 2021)

The Romanian government is striving to attain energy self-sufficiency, yet experts caution that there are lingering issues, even as environmental organizations advocate for an increased use of renewable energy sources. ^[358]Pavel Sinka, Romania Aims for Energy Independence in Response to War in Ukraine, Euractiv, … Continue reading

For energy stability purposes, following the conflict between Ukraine and Russia, Romania had to delay its coal phase-out goal from 2030 to 2032. This initiative involved substituting a significant portion of the nation’s coal-based power generation with natural gas. ^[359]See Supra note 1

In 2023, Romania is set to expand its largest coal mine in Oltenia ^[360] Mihajlo Vujasin, Romania plans to expand coal mine over 100 hectares of forests, Balkan Green Energy News, (Jan.16, 2023) … Continue reading, with an annual capacity to produce eight million tonnes of lignite. Due to the current gas crisis, coal-generated electricity is experiencing a resurgence, causing a delay in the progress of the energy transition.^[361]Id.

Slovenia

Slovenia is actively pursuing a transition to low-carbon energy sources by emphasizing energy efficiency, the expansion of renewable energy resources, and the development of advanced electricity distribution networks. While nuclear energy and hydroelectric power will continue to play significant roles in their energy strategy, experts highlight the need for optimization, digitalization, enhanced efficiency, and the creation of export-oriented products and services to achieve the 2030 carbon emission goals, which are projected to require an investment ranging from EUR 600 million to EUR 2.5 billion.^[362]https://www.trade.gov/country-commercial-guides/slovenia-energy#:~:text=Slovenia%20is%20seeking%20to%20gradually,of%20active%20electricity%2Ddistribution%20networks.

As part of the EU’s collective Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC) to the Paris Agreement, Slovenia is committed to reducing emissions by 55% by 2030 compared to 1990 levels.^[363]European commission on behalf the European Union and its members, European Union, Intended Nationally Determined Contribution of the European Union Towards The Climate Agreement of Paris 2015 (2020), … Continue reading The country is aligned with the EU’s target to achieve net-zero greenhouse gas emissions by 2050.^[364]Ministry of Energy of the Republic of Slovenia, Integrated Energy and Climate Plan of the Republic of Slovenia 2021-2030. (2020), available at p. 21 … Continue reading Slovenia’s specific targets include reaching 27% renewable energy in gross final consumption of energy in 2030, from 25% in 2020, which is well below the 37% renewable share in 2030 recommended in the Regulation (EU) 2018/1999.^[365]European Commission, Summary of the Commission assessment of the draft National Energy and Climate Plan 2021-2030. (2020), available at p.2 … Continue reading

Programs 

National Energy and Climate Plan (NECP)

Slovenia’s draft National Energy and Climate Plan (NECP) for 2020 and 2030 outlines objectives and actions based on existing measures and proposals for 2030 targets. The plan hinges on forthcoming parliamentary approval of the Energy Concept of Slovenia (ReEKS) for long-term energy objectives. To ensure a robust final plan, policy consistency, innovation, and energy efficiency opportunities are crucial for economic modernization and job creation.^[366]Ministry of Energy of the Republic of Slovenia, Integrated Energy and Climate Plan of the Republic of Slovenia 2021-2030. (2020), available at … Continue reading

However, under the Summary of the Commission’s assessment, the NECP lacks policies and measures necessary to achieve the 2030 greenhouse gas emission target, particularly for non-EU Emission Trading System sectors. It also doesn’t address potential cost-efficient transfers to other EU Member States or consider the growth and job opportunities.^[367]European Commission, Summary of the Commission assessment of the draft National Energy and Climate Plan 2021-2030. (2020), available at … Continue reading  Additionally, Slovenia’s energy efficiency contribution lacks a defined target for final energy consumption or comprehensive EU-level policies and measures; improving these aspects in the final plan would better align with broader EU energy efficiency goals.^[368]Id. at 2

Legislative initiatives

Energy efficiency target declared by Slovenia under the EU Directive (2012/27/EU)

Under the EU Directive (2012/27/EU), Slovenia set a target of achieving 10.809 GWh in energy savings by 2020, in alignment with the broader EU objective of reducing energy consumption by 20% (equivalent to 1483 million tons of oil equivalent or Mtoe) by the same year.^[369]EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT, DIRECTIVE 2012/27/EU On Energy Efficiency Target (2012), available at https://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:L:2012:315:0001:0056:en:PDF The directive mandated all Member States, including Slovenia, to establish energy-saving programs.^[370]Id. at 13 Energy distributors and retail energy sales companies in these countries were legally obligated to annually save 1.5% of their energy sales through measures like enhancing heating system efficiency, installing double-glazed windows, or roof insulation among final energy customers.^[371]Id. at 15 This collective effort aimed to enhance energy efficiency, decrease energy consumption, and contribute to the EU’s broader energy-saving targets.^[372]Id. at 1

Slovenia Net-Metering System

On December 10, 2015, Slovenia introduced the Decree on self-supply of electricity from renewable energy sources, establishing a net-metering program effective from January 16, 2016.^[373]International Energy Agency, Slovenia Net-Metering System (Uredbo o samooskrbi z elektricno energijo iz obnovljivih virov energije) (2015), available at … Continue reading This program primarily caters to households and small businesses, emphasizing electricity production for self-consumption rather than export.^[374]Id. At the end of each calendar year, any surplus energy sent to the grid won’t be compensated.^[375]Id. Eligibility is limited to installations of 11kVA or smaller, and there’s an annual connection limit of 10 MVA, divided into 7 MVA for households and 3 MVA for businesses.^[376]Id.. While all renewable energy installations can participate in net metering, not all participants are eligible for feed-in tariffs and premium support.^[377]Republic of Slovenia, Slovenia Net-Metering System (2015), available at http://www.pisrs.si/Pis.web/pregledPredpisa?id=URED7867

Spain

As a member of the European Union, Spain is part of the joint Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC), a strategic plan within the EU’s commitment to the Paris Agreement, and the updated 2020 submission to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) pledges a 55% reduction in emissions by 2030 compared to 1990 levels. ^[378]European Commission on behalf of the European Union and its members, European Union, Intended Nationally Determined Contribution of the European Union Towards The Climate Agreement of Paris 2015 … Continue reading

Consequently, Spain aims to achieve national climate neutrality by 2050, with a target for renewables to supply 100% of electricity and 97% of the overall energy mix, emphasizing extensive deployment of renewable energy, energy efficiency, electrification, and renewable hydrogen in its energy policies. ^[379]International Energy Agency, Spain’s extensive policy plans set to help underpin a successful energy transition powered by renewables and efficiency (2021), available at … Continue reading

Additionally, the Spanish government has established ambitious and legally binding renewable energy targets for 2030, aiming for a 74% share of renewables in electricity consumption, a significant increase from the 37% recorded in 2019. ^[380]Spanish Presidency of the Council of the European Union, Spain, a benchmark in renewable energies, is in the throes of far-reaching reforms to lead the green transition in the EU (2023), available at … Continue reading 

Programs 

In November 2020, Spain implemented a new support framework for Renewable Energy Sources in the form of the Economic Regime for Renewable Energies (RD 960/2020). ^[381]Ministry for ecological Transition and the Demographic Challenge, Royal Decree 960/2020, Regulating the economic regime for renewable energy economic regime for renewable energies for electric energy … Continue reading This system, conducted through auctions, had its inaugural round in January 2021, aiming to distribute support based on competitive bidding. ^[382]International Energy Agency, Press Release: Spain’s extensive policy plans set to help underpin a successful energy transition powered by renewables and efficiency (2021), available at … Continue reading) The mechanism, outlined in RD 960/2020 and Order 1161/2020, offers premiums to the lowest bidders, adjusted by market factors, with an emphasis on incentivizing participation in the wholesale electricity market and promoting renewable energy production during peak demand hours. ^[383]Id.

Legislative initiatives

The Climate Change and Energy Transition (Law 07/2021): 

Spain enacted Law 7/2021 in May 2021 to facilitate the country’s compliance with the Paris Agreement. ^[384]Antonio Morales, Jose Moran, Guadalupe Mairata, Spain: Spain formalizes its commitment to energy transition, Baker McKenzie, (2021), available at … Continue reading) Following Spain’s signing of the Paris Agreement on April 22, 2016, the primary goals include enabling the decarbonization of the Spanish economy and addressing climate change, with the overarching aim of achieving climate neutrality by 2050. ^[385]Id. To achieve this objective, the law establishes various interim targets for 2030, including a minimum 23% reduction in Spain’s emissions from 1990 levels, ensuring that renewable energy comprises at least 42% of the nation’s energy mix, aiming for 74% of electricity generation to be from renewables, and enhancing energy efficiency by  decreasing energy demand by at least 39.5%. ^[386]Id. The legal framework imposes various restrictions on the extraction of new fossil fuel reserves in Spain, both onshore and offshore, due to the fact that the combustion of fossil fuels for electricity generation is the primary contributor to greenhouse gas emissions in the country.^[387]Id.

Sweden

The movement away from carbon-based energy and toward low and zero-carbon energy in Sweden is very well developed. This country has the smallest proportion of fossil fuels in its primary energy supply among all member countries of the International Energy Agency (IEA), and ranks as the second least carbon-intensive economy.^[388]International Energy Agency, “Sweden is a leader in the energy transition, according to latest IEA country review”,available at … Continue reading

The nation’s success in transitioning its energy landscape is attributed to its adoption of market-driven policies, with a key emphasis on enhancing energy efficiency and expanding the use of renewable energy sources^[389]See Id.. Particularly noteworthy is the implementation of CO2 taxation, which has played a pivotal role in propelling decarbonization across various sectors^[390]Id..
Sweden is at the forefront of a low-carbon society, setting ambitious goals, including achieving 100% renewable electricity by 2040.^[391]International Energy Agency, Energy Policy Review Sweden 2019, available at https://www.iea.org/reports/energy-policies-of-iea-countries-sweden-2019-review (April, 2019)

Sweden has set ambitious objectives in the field of clean energy.  In 2017, Sweden’s Parliament, with broad political support, enacted a groundbreaking climate policy framework, including a climate act aligning with the Paris Agreement. The objective is for Sweden to achieve net-zero greenhouse gas emissions by 2045.^[392]Ministry of Climate and Enterprise,”Sweden’s climate policy framework”, Government Offices of Sweden(Mar.11,2021), … Continue reading

In pursuit of these objectives, Sweden has been significantly investing in clean energy initiatives. Since 2018, the country has doubled its wind capacity, currently operating close to 5,000 wind turbines^[393]Charlotte Elton, “Sweden rebuked for ‘backwards’ climate policy despite wind power record”, Euronews available at … Continue reading. In February 2023, these turbines generated approximately 4 terawatts of energy, meeting 27% of the nation’s electricity demand.^[394]See Id.

Middle East & North Africa

Jordan

Jordan has been a pioneer in renewable energy development in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region,^[395]Neil Quilliam & Jessica Obeid, How to unlock the potential of Jordan’s renewable energy sector, Kalam,(2023), … Continue reading given its number of advantages for renewable energy development, including abundant sunshine and wind. ^[396]Id.

The country has set ambitious renewable energy targets and is making significant progress, aiming to generate half of its energy needs from renewable energy by 2030^[397]Jordan Times, Jordan leads Arab world in renewable energy production, says Kharabsheh (2023), https://jordantimes.com/news/local/jordan-leads-arab-world-renewable-energy-production-says-kharabsheh . Its renewable energy development is being supported by a number of international partners, including the World Bank^[398]The World Bank, Two New Projects to Foster Climate Responsive Investments for Growth and Job Creation and to Support Jordan’s Electricity Sector Efficiency, The World Bank Press Release, (2023), … Continue reading, and the German government^[399]The Jordanian German Energy Partnership Website, available at https://www.energy-jordan-germany.org/energy-partnership/ (last visited Dec. 7, 2023. 

Jordan has made significant progress in expanding renewable energy, but still faces challenges related to infrastructure, financing, and conflicting interests with the fossil fuel industry.^[400]Neil Quilliam & Jessica Obeid, supra note 1 Nevertheless, more coordinated governance is needed to drive the energy transition forward.^[401]Id.

Currently the country is exploring the potential of geothermal energy given its geothermal sites that could be used to generate electricity and heat.^[402]Ahmad A. Salah, Mohammad M. Shalby & Firas Basim Ismail, The status and potential of renewable energy development in Jordan: exploring challenges and opportunities, Sustainability: Science, … Continue reading Jordan is also working to develop its electrical grid and energy storage capacity. The country is building a new high-voltage transmission line to connect its renewable energy projects to the grid.^[403]Energy & Utilities, Jordan a rising star in renewable power and exports, (2023), https://energy-utilities.com/jordan-a-rising-star-in-renewable-power-and-news121608.html (last visited Dec. 07, … Continue reading

Kuwait

Kuwait, ranking among the globe’s top ten oil producers and boasting the sixth-largest confirmed oil reserves, maintains a thriving economy due to its limited population, although it predominantly relies on income generated from oil exports.^[404]KUWAIT INSTITUTE FOR SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH, Kuwait Energy Outlook (2022), available at https://www.kisr.edu.kw/en/gi/1/details/ Despite its aspirations to transition towards a low-carbon economy by 2050, Kuwait presently lacks a clear net-zero objective or strategy, and a comprehensive fossil fuel phase-out policy remains absent.^[405]BLOOMBERG NEF, Climatescope: Kuwait (2022), available at https://www.global-climatescope.org/markets/kw/

In its recently updated Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC), which outlines its official plan to fulfill the Paris Agreement objectives, Kuwait is committed to curtailing its greenhouse gas emissions by 7.4% by 2035, relative to a business-as-usual scenario starting from 2015 levels.^[406]GOVERNMENT OF KUWAIT, Nationally Determined Contribution (2021), available at https://unfccc.int/sites/default/files/NDC/2022-06/Kuwait%20updating%20the%20first%20NDC-arabic.pdf This endeavor specifically targets emissions reduction in sectors such as energy, industrial processes, agriculture, forestry, and other land use.^[407]Id. at 17. The plan also highlights the potential impact of climate change on Kuwait and presents an overview of the nation’s greenhouse gas inventory.^[408]Id. at 17. It underscores Kuwait’s ambition to cut 7.4% of its greenhouse gas emissions by 2035, encompassing carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide emissions, and draws attention to mitigation projects in the energy sector, concentrating on enhancing energy efficiency in power generation and implementing carbon capture and storage.^[409]Id. at 16.

Programs
 Renewable Energy Building and Site Integration
The program’s objective is to encourage the adoption of photovoltaic (PV) and solar thermal systems for both electricity generation and cooling/heating applications in a wide range of settings, spanning residential, governmental, public, commercial, and industrial structures.^[410]INTERNATIONAL ENERGY AGENCY, Renewable Energy Building and Site Integration (2021), available at https://www.iea.org/policies/5542-renewable-energy-building-and-site-integration Key ongoing initiatives encompass the establishment of a National Grid-Connected PV Laboratory, the advancement and deployment of PV and solar thermal technologies tailored to the needs of the oil sector, and the integration of PV systems into residential, educational, and governmental buildings.^[411]KUWAIT INSTITUTE FOR SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH, Sustainable Energy, Building Materials, and Infrastructure (2023), available at https://www.kisr.edu.kw/en/research-centers/energy-building/
In pursuit of its mission, the program seeks to drive the implementation of PV and solar thermal solutions across diverse sectors and to support various projects, including the National Grid-Connected PV Laboratory, the development and deployment of technology catering to the oil sector’s demands, and the incorporation of PV systems within residential, school, and government structures.^[412]Id.

Innovative Renewable Energy Research Program
The program’s primary objective is to facilitate the diversification of energy resources and ensure a sustainable supply of both energy and water for the future. It intends to achieve this by offering innovative renewable energy solutions and clean combustion technologies.^[413]NTERNATIONAL ENERGY AGENCY, Innovative Renewable Energy Research Program (2021), available at https://www.iea.org/policies/5539-innovative-renewable-energy-research-program The program encompasses a comprehensive approach that includes research and studies to determine the most suitable renewable energy technologies for implementation, adapting technologies to local conditions, and conducting research and development to create novel systems tailored to Kuwait’s future requirements.^[414]Id. The key focus areas within this program include solar photovoltaic systems, Concentrating Solar Power (solar thermal power generation), solar cooling solutions, wind power, fuel cells with an emphasis on hydrogen storage technologies, and clean combustion technologies.^[415]KUWAIT INSTITUTE FOR SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH, About us (2023), available at https://www.kisr.edu.kw/en/discover-kisr/about-us/ By following these strategic steps, the program aims to pave the way for the commercialization of the developed prototype systems.^[416]Id.
In summary, this program’s overarching goal is to foster energy resource diversification, ultimately ensuring a sustainable energy and water supply for the future through the utilization of cutting-edge renewable energy and clean combustion solutions.

Morocco

Morocco is aiming to become a major renewable energy producer and exporter, the country has invested heavily in solar, wind, and other renewables taking advantage of its abundant natural solar and wind resources. ^[417]Llewellyn King, Morocco Wants To Be A ‘Destination’ For Renewable Energy, Forbes Magazine, (Aug.1, 2022) … Continue reading. Currently, it has around 11,000 MW of total installed electricity generating capacity, with over 4,000 MW from renewables. It plans to install over 4,500 MW of additional renewable capacity ^[418]See Id..

Morocco aims to satisfy its own electricity demand and also become a major renewable energy exporter to North Africa and Europe, fulfilling its goal of becoming a regional leader and model for transitioning from fossil fuels to clean energy^[419]See Id..

The country hopes to eventually export significant amounts of renewable power to Europe via existing and planned interconnections with Spain, Portugal, and the UK^[420]See Id..

Morocco has made great strides in renewable energy development compared to other developing nations. It aims to source 52% of its energy needs from domestic renewable sources by 2030^[421]Jihane Rahhou, Report: Morocco’s 2030 Green Energy Target Is ‘Most Credible’ in MENA , (Sep. 18, … Continue reading.

Oman

Oman’s energy supply relies entirely on domestically produced natural gas and oil products, and the nation is a significant exporter of both oil and gas.^[422]International Energy Agency, Countries: Oman (2023), available at https://www.iea.org/countries/oman However, as of September 2021, Oman lacked a net-zero goal or strategy, primarily because of its heavy dependence on oil and liquefied natural gas (LNG).^[423]Bloomberg NEF, Climatescope: Oman (2023), available at https://www.global-climatescope.org/markets/om/ To address this, the National Strategy for an Orderly Transition to Net Zero was introduced as a green transition pathway with the objective of attaining carbon neutrality by 2050.^[424]International Energy Agency, National Strategy for an Orderly Transition to Net Zero (2023), available at https://www.iea.org/policies/17268-national-strategy-for-an-orderly-transition-to-net-zero The strategy outlines key objectives such as environmental sustainability, energy system cost management, economic and social impacts, and ensuring a secure energy supply by 2050, ultimately striving for self-sufficiency in power and hydrogen production.^[425]Ministry Of Energy and Mines Of Oman, The Sultanate of Oman´s National Strategy for an Orderly Transition to Net Zero, p.5 (2022), available at … Continue reading

The country has committed to decreasing its overall greenhouse gas emissions by 2% by the year 2030 through its intended Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs).^[426]International Energy Agency, Oman´s Second Nationally Determined Contribution (2023), available at https://www.iea.org/policies/15254-omans-second-nationally-determined-contribution These NDCs are integrated into Oman’s 2040 vision and national energy strategy, supporting a gradual shift toward a low-carbon economy and reducing carbon emissions within the energy sector.^[427]Id. 

The strategy is built upon two main foundations: the first involves the expansion of large-scale renewable projects and the enhancement of energy efficiency, while the second entails implementing a carbon reduction initiative specifically targeting the oil and gas sector. ^[428]Id.

^[429]United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, Oman´s Second Nationally Determined Contribution (2021), available at … Continue reading (would recommend just using the same reference from IEA)

Oman seeks to integrate renewable sources into its energy mix and enhance the efficiency of power plants, while also implementing fiscal measures to promote energy conservation in various end-use activities.^[430]United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, Oman´s Second Nationally Determined Contribution, at 7 (2021), available at … Continue reading These combined efforts are projected to reduce greenhouse gas emissions by 7% in 2030, equating to approximately 125 million metric tons of CO2 equivalent.^[431]Id. at 3

Despite these efforts, Oman has not set a policy to phase out fossil fuels due to its continued reliance on oil and LNG.^[432]Id. at 10 However, the nation does have a plan to gradually reduce its LNG imports from Qatar, indicating a modest shift toward diversifying its energy sources while maintaining a level of dependency on fossil fuels.^[433]Oman´s Second Nationally Determined Contribution, supra note 7, at 10.

Programs
Renewables 2025 Target
In collaboration with Petroleum Development Oman and under the Ministry of Energy and Minerals’ guidance, the Sultanate of Oman unveiled its 3,050 MW renewable energy target for 2025 in 2020.^[434]INTERNATIONAL ENERGY AGENCY, Renewables 2025 Target (2023), available at https://www.iea.org/policies/17271-renewables-2025-target By 2030, the Oman Power and Water Procurement Company (OPWP) aims to contribute 30% of the Sultanate’s total generation capacity, necessitating the establishment of at least 3,050 megawatts (MW) of renewable energy capacity by 2025.^[435]OMAN SUSTAINABILITY WEEK, Oman Targets 3,050 Mw of Renewables By 2025 (2020), available at https://www.omansustainabilityweek.com/LatestUpdate2021.aspx?LatestUpdate=pressRe3

Oman 2040 Vision
Oman Vision 2040 serves as the nation’s pathway to address challenges and adapt to evolving global and regional dynamics.^[436]GOVERNMENT OF OMAN, Oman Vision 2040 (2021), available at https://www.mof.gov.om/pdf/Vision_Documents_En.pdf It aims to achieve 20% renewable energy consumption by 2030 and 35-39% by 2040.^[437]Id. at 39. The vision seeks to enhance economic competitiveness, promote social well-being, stimulate overall growth, and instill confidence in various national economic, social, and developmental aspects while actively seizing opportunities for progress.^[438]Id. at 8.

Legislative initiatives

Royal Decree No. 10/2023
This Decree designates land for renewable energy and clean hydrogen initiatives^[439]INTERNATIONAL ENERGY AGENCY, Royal Decree No. 10/2023 (2023), available at https://www.iea.org/policies/17269-royal-decree-no-102023 , with the Ministry of Energy and Minerals having exclusive authority to delineate and execute the specifics of on-site green energy and clean hydrogen undertakings from February 2023.^[440]OMAN NEWS AGENCY, HM The Sultan Issues Two Royal Decrees (2023), available at … Continue reading

Qatar

Qatar is globally renowned for being a leading producer and exporter of liquefied natural gas.^[441] Dentons, Qatar’s plans for renewable energy (2023), available at https://www.dentons.com/en/insights/alerts/2023/may/10/qatars-plans-for-renewable-energy (last visited Dec. 08, 2023) In recent times, the country has been actively working towards diversifying its energy portfolio to decrease carbon emissions.^[442]Id.

The State of Qatar has set a significant national goal to reduce its greenhouse gas emissions (GHG) by 25% by 2030, this objective stands as a cornerstone within Qatar’s National Vision 2030, which places a strong emphasis on sustainable social and environmental initiatives, economic diversification, technological advancement, and the development of a diversified energy mix.^[443]International Trade Administration, Qatar Energy Greenhouse Gas (Ghg) Emissions Reductions And Sustainability Initiatives (2022), available at … Continue reading) Another integral component of Qatar’s national vision is the National Climate Change Plan, a strategic framework endorsed in September 2021 by the Qatar Council of Ministers and establishes national climate targets and includes more than 35 measures and over 300 adaptation initiatives focused on enhancing climate resilience.^[444]Government Communications office, Environment and Sustainability (2022), available at https://www.gco.gov.qa/en/focus/environment-and-sustainability/ (last visited Dec. 07, 2023)

Climate change has become an increasingly central concern for the Qatari government, as evident from the establishment of the dedicated Ministry for Environment and Climate Change in October 2021, along with the rebranding of Qatar Petroleum to QatarEnergy (QE).^[445]International Trade Administration, supra note 3. Moreover, Qatar has taken significant steps in renewable energy, particularly highlighted by the inauguration of its first major solar energy plant, Al Kharsaah, in October 2022.^[446]Dentons, supra note 1.